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A SHORT 

HISTORY OF ENGLAND 

FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO 
THE PRESENT DAY 



BY 

CYRIL RANSOME, M.A. 

Merton College, Oxford 
Professor of Modern Literature and History in the Yorkshire College, Leeds 



With Maps and Plans 



E. p. BUTTON AND CO. 

PUBLISHERS AND IMPORTERS 
31, WEST TWENTY-THIRD STREET 

MDCCCLXXXVIII 
' % % % 






\Vi% 



486568 
N. 4, '38 



PREFACE 

The aim of this History of England is to give a 
short narrative of the growth of the British Empire 
and Constitution from the earliest times to the pre- 
sent day, in such a form and within such limits as 
shall supply the wants of middle and upper forms 
at schools, candidates for university and civil service 
examinations, and for the army and navy, pupil and 
assistant teachers at elementary schools, and students 
in training colleges, and also shall give a clear and 
intelligible account of those events and institutions 
a knowledge of which is so much needed by the 
student of modern political life. 

To attain all these ends within the space of 450 
pages has been a most difficult task, and a rigid 
censorship has been needed, both in choosing the 
subjects and events to be mentioned, and in allotting 
an appropriate space to each. In deciding what 
subjects to admit, I have had with great regret to 
omit all references to the manners and customs of 
the people, except where they have borne directly 
upon political events ; on the other hand, greater 
space has been given to the working of economic 
causes than has been usual in a book of this size. 



vi Preface. 

Again, I have omitted all reference to literature ex- 
cept where strictly connected with history, partly 
because I am led to think that the mere facts boys 
learn on this subject are of little use, and also because 
the teaching of literature is happily being made a 
separate department from the teaching of history. 
In allotting space, I have been guided by the follow- 
ing considerations. If any event, such as the death 
of Charles I., or the crusade of Richard I., is certain 
to have been pathetically or graphically described 
in the first history put into a child's hands, whatever 
that may be, I have contented myself with a mere 
statement of fact ; if an event, and especially a 
constitutional event, was likely to be new to my 
readers, I have spared no pains to make it intelligible 
and vivid. Everywhere I have been guided by what 
I have learnt, as a practical teacher, of the difficulties 
which most readers find hardest to surmount, and I 
have tried to bear in mind that the object of teaching 
history is not to cram with facts and dates (useful, 
and indeed necessary, as these, are), but to awaken 
thought, and especially to teach the habit of thinking 
intelligently about the political events of our own and 
other countries. 

The history is divided into nine books, according 
to dynasties, and each chapter contains, as a rule, the 
reign of one king. At the beginning of each book 
are placed genealogies of the royal families, and 
pedigrees to illustrate special points are given in the 
notes. At the head of each reign is a list of the 
notable characters to whom attention is to be directed. 
Numerous maps and plans are given, with tables of 



Preface. vii 

the chief events, and a complete analysis is provided 
by the table of contents. 

The style aims at being simple, but not childish. 
In spelling, I have in the earlier part of the work 
followed that given by Dr. Stubbs in his " English 
Constitutional History." With him I have rejected 
the use of such forms as Alfred for Alfred, and 
Eadward for Edward, believing that no good is 
gained by such accuracy comparable to the injury 
done by accentuating in a boy's mind the idea that 
our ancestors were not men like ourselves. In 
other cases I have followed the modern spelling, 
and have called men and places by the names by 
which they have been familiar to many generations 
of Englishmen. 

In dealing with the later history I have not 
attempted to do more than give such connecting 
links as shall enable the reader to carry on the thread 
of the narrative to the time when his own memory 
begins to serve him, carefully keeping clear of party 
questions by confining myself to simple statements 
of facts, and throughout I have taken pains not to 
use expressions which would be likely to wound the 
feelings of any religious body, or of any of the peoples 
who are now united with Englishmen in a single 
kingdom. 

The Skeleton History of England,* published in 
1882, by Mr. A. H. Dyke Acland and myself, may be 
used as a companion to this book, and teachers will 

* "A Skeleton Outline of the History of England," being an abridg- 
ment of " A Handbook in Outline of the Political History of England." 
By A. H. Dyke Acland, M.P., and Cyril Ransome, M. A. i^. 6^/. 



viii Preface. 

find in the larger handbook * summaries of many 
matters which will be useful for oral instruction. 
Excluding the tables and maps, the period B.C. 55 to 
1837 is comprised in about 400 pages, which will 
make the work, if used as a text-book, lend itself 
best to a two years' course, but a private student or 
a form which can give more than one hour a week 
will have no difficulty in mastering its contents in a 
much shorter time. 

In conclusion, I can only add that I am as conscious 
as any one can be of the many shortcomings of the 
book. I have done my best to get rid of mistakes, 
with the aid of friends who have been so good as to 
help me, among whom I should specially mention 
Bishop Stubbs, who was good enough to examine a 
specially difficult constitutional passage ; Professor 
Creighton ; Mr. George Nutt, of Rugby ; Rev. A. B. 
Beaven, of Preston ; and Mr. H. Richardson, of Marl- 
borough — to all of whom I owe a great debt of thanks. 
Some errors, however, are likely to survive the most 
careful revision, and it will be a great kindness in 
those who use the book if they will supply me with 
lists of such as they may find. 

C. R. 

Leeds, April, 1887. 

♦ "A Handbook in Outline of the Political History of England." 
Chronologically arranged. By A. H. Dyke Acland, M.P., and Cyril 
Ransome, M.A. 6^. 



CONTENTS 

BOOK I. 

Page 

DATE * 

England before the Norman Conquest 1-30 

CHAPTER I. 

Britain under the Romans. 

The English Race 4 

The Aryan Family 4 

Primitive Inhabitants of Europe . . , 5 

B.C. Pytheas' Voyage 5 

65, 54. Caesar's Invasion of Britain 6 

Physical Geography of Britain 6 

Races of Britain . . . , 7 

A.D. British Civilization 8 

43-81. Conquest of Britain by the Romans 9 

Roman Organization, Towns, and Camps 9 

Roman Civilization .... 10 

Roman Walls 10 

410. Roman Evacuation of Britain 1 1 

CHAPTER II. 

English Settlement in Britain. 

Facts of the Invasion 12 

Chief Battles of the Conquest 14 

Early English Kingdoms 14 

597. Conversion of the English to Christianity iS 

Struggle for Supremacy 16 

Celtic Missionaries ■ . 17 

664. Synod of Whitby 18 

668. Organization of the Church by Theodore 18 

607. Northumbrian Supremacy begins . . 18 

757. Mercian „ „ 19 

826. West Saxon „ „ 19 



Contents. 



CHAPTER in. 

GOVEENMENT OF THE ENGLISH. 

DATE Page 

The TownsMp 20 

The Hundred 20 

The Shire 21 

The Fyrd 21 

The Witenagemot 21 

The King 22 

Folkland 22 

CHAPTER IV. 
Invasions op the Nokthmen. 

The Northmen 23 

787. First Period of Invasion begins 23 

Ethelwulf, Ethelbald, Ethelbert, Ethelred 1 24 

855. Second Period of Invasion begins 24 

871. Invasion of Wessex 24 

Alfred 24 

879. Treaty of Chippenham 25 

Effects of the Settlement of the Northmen 25 

Alfred's Policy and Reforms 26 

901. Edward the Elder 26 

910. Conquest of the Dane-law begins 27 

Edward's Overlordship , 27 

926. Athelstan 27 

945. Edmund 28 

Dunstan 28 

955. Edred and Edwy .' 28 

Dunstan's Policy 29 

Third Period of Invasion begins 29 

980. Ethelred the Unready 29 

1016. Edmund Ironside 30 

1017. Canute becomes King 31 

1036. Harold and Hardicanute 32 

CHAPTER V. 

The Nokman Conquest. 

1044. Edward the Confessor 33 

Fondness for Normans of 33 

1051. Visit of William of Normandy 34 

Family of Godwin 34 



ConteniSo xi 



DATE 



Page 
1066. Harold II 35 

— William's Pretext for Invasion 35 

— Invasion of Tostig and Harold Hardrada 36 

— Battle of Hastings, or Senlac 37 

— Election of William 37 



BOOK II. 

The Norman Kings 39-62 

CHAPTER I. 
William the Conquekor (1066-1087). 

William's Policy 42 

1067-71. Eevolts of the English 42 

1071. Abolition of the Great Earldoms 43 

Distribution of Property and Castles 44 

Normans in the Church 44 

Eolations with the Pope and Clergy 45 

1074. Eebellions of the Barons 45 

1086. Doomsday Book 46 

— Salisbury Oath , 46 

Feudalism defined 46 

1087. Death and Character of William 47 

CHAPTEE II. 
William II. (1087-1100). 

Policy of William 48 

1088. Eebellion of the Barons 49 

1090. Invasion of Normandy 49 

Policy towards Scotland and Wales 49, 50 

Eanulf Flambard 50 

Feudal Dues 50 

Exactions from Clergy 51 

1097. Quarrel with Anselm 51 

1096. First Crusade 51 

1100. Death of William 52 

CHAPTER III. 

Henry I. (1100-1135). 

Charter granted 53 

1102. Marriage with Matilda 53 



xii Contents, 

DATE Pa^g^ 

"War with Robert of Belleme 53 

1104:. War with Robert of Normandy 55 

1106. Battle of Tenchebrai 55 

1107. Quarrel with Anselm ahout Investitures settled 55 

Constitutional Reforms 56 

Roger of Salisbury 56 

Magnum Concilium and Curia Regis 56 

Question of Succession 57 

1135. Henry's Death and Character 57j 58 

CHAPTER IV. 

Stephen (1135-1154). 

Unpopularity of Matilda 59 

1135. Election and Character of Stephen 59 

1138. Invasion of the Scots 60 

1139. Quarrel with Roger of Salisbury 60 

Matilda's arrival 61 

Civil War and State of the Country 61 

Henry of Anjou 61 

1153. Treaty of Wallingford 62 

1154. Death of Stephen 62 



BOOK III. 

Earlier Angevin Kings, sometimes called Plan- 
tagenets 62-92 

CHAPTER I. 

Henry II. (1154-1189). 

Character of Henry 11 67 

Henry's Reforms 68 

1150. War of Toulouse 68 

Institution of Scutage 68 

1162. Becket made Archbishop of Canterbury 69 

Trial of Clergy 69 

1164. Constitutions of Clarendon 70 

1170. Quarrel with Becket . 70 

Murder of Becket 7c 

Reform of the Shire-Moot 71 

Origin of the Grand Jury 71 

Origin of the Petty Jury , 71 



Contents. xiii 

DATE Page 

Origin of the Civil Jury 72 

State of Ireland in the Twelfth Century 72 

1169. Invasion of Ireland by the Normans 73 

1174. Barons' Eising 73 

— Treaty of Falaise with Scotland 74 

Development of the Curia Kegis 74 

1181. Assize of Arms 74 

1187. Capture of Jerusalem by Saladia. , 75 

1188. The Saladin Tithe 75 

CHAPTEE II. 
EiCHAED I. (1189-1199). 

1189. Preparations for a Crusade 76 

— Persecutions of the Jews 76 

1191. Siege of Acre 77 

1193. Eichard's Captivity 77 

1195. Eebellion of William Fitz-Osbert 78 

1199. Death of Eichard 78 

CHAPTEE III. 
John (1199-1216). 

1200. Divorce and re-marriage of John 80 

1203. Death of Arthur of Brittany 80 

1204. Loss of Maine, Normandy, Anjou, and Touraine 80 

1205. Election of an Archbishop 80 

1209. John excommunicated 81 

1214. War in Poitou and Flanders 82 

— Battle of Bouvines 82 

1215. Struggle with the Barons 82 

— Magna Carta (The Great Charter) 83 

— John's attempt to annul Magna Carta 84 

— Barons call on Louis of France 84 

1216. John's Death 84 

CHAPTEE IV. 
Heney IH. (121G-1272) 

Henry's Prospects 85 

1217. Defeat of Louis at Lincoln and Sandwich 85 

Magna Carta republished 86 

Turbulent Nobles put down 86 

Papal Exactions , . , 86 

6 



xiv Contents. 

DATE p^^g 

1232. Fall of Hubert de Burgh, the last Justiciar 87 

Henry's Government 87 

1236. Henry marries Eleanor of Provence 88 

Greediness of Foreign Favourites 88 

1254. Henry accepts the Crown of Sicily for his Son 88 

1242. Useless Expeditions to France go 

Kise of Simon de Montfort 89 

1258. Provisions of Oxford oq 

1264. Arbitration of Louis IX 00 

— War between the King and the Barons gi 

1264. Battle of Lewes 91 

1265. De Montfort's Parliament ........* 91 

-- Fall of Simon de Montfort \ 02 

— Battle of Evesham 02 

Eesults of de Montfort's Actions 02 

1272. Death of Henry 92 



BOOK lY. 

The Later Angevin Kings, sometimes called 
Plantagenets o^-i ^ ^ 

CHAPTER L 
Edwaed L (1272-1307).. 

Commercial Treaty with Flanders 05 

Great Statutes of the Keign 07 08 

Eegulation of the Law Courts 08 

The Jews in England pg 

1290. Their expulsion qq 

Attempt to annex Wales and Scotland go 

1282. Wales conquered jqq 

England and Scotland jqq 

1291. Scottish Succession Question joq 

1294. Difficulty about Guienne , jqj 

1295. Model Parliament summoned 102 

1296. First Battle of Dunbar ".'.*.*.'.".*.'.'."'.*.'. ". '. '. '. '. * 102 

Heavy Taxation jq2 

Clergy compelled to contribute to the Revenue 103 

1297. Refusal of Barons to invade France by themselves 103 

— Rebellion of the Barons jq^ 

— Confirmatio Cartarum (Confirmation of the Charters) ...*.' 103 



1274. 



Contents. xv 

DATE Page 

1297. Eebellion of Wallace 104 

— Battle of Camhuskenneth 104 

1298. Battle of Falkirk 104 

1299. Comyn's Rebellion 104 

1306. Rebellion of Robert Bruce 104 

1307. Death of Edward 104 

CHAPTER II. 

Edward II. (1307-1327). 

Character of Edward II 105 

Piers Gaveston 105 

Thomas of Lancaster leads the Opposition 106 

1310. Barons appoint the Lord Ordainers to govern the Country . 106 

1312. Death of Gaveston 107 

1314. Invasion of Scotland, defeat at Bannockburu 107 

1315. Irish Insurrection helped by the Scots 107 

1318. Invasion of England by the Scots 107 

Famine of 1314, 1315 108 

Rise of the Despensers 108 

1323. Defeat of Lancasterat Boroughbridge, and fall of the Barons 108 

— ■ Commons gain a Share in Legislation 108 

1325, Queen Isabella goes to Guienne and conspires with Mortimer 109 

1326. Execution of the Despensers 109 

1337. Dethronement and Death of Edward . , 109 

CHAPTER III. 
Edwaed III. (1327-1377). 

1338. Invasion of the Scots 1 1 1 

— Edward takes the Government m 

1333. Attempt of the Barons to make Edward Balliol King of 

Scotland 112 

1333. English Invasion of Scotland 112 

— Battle of Halidon Hill 112 

1336. Scots receive help from France 112 

Question of the French Succession 112 

1333. Separation of Parliament into two Houses 113 

1337. Edward assumes Title of King of France 113 

1339. Failure of the Invasion of France 114 

1340. Battle of Sluys 114 

1341. Quarrel with Archbishop Stratford 114 

1346. Invasion of France by way of the Seine I15 

— Passage of the Somme 116 



xvi Contents. 

DATE Pa-ge 

1346. Battle of Orecy ii6, 117 

— Siege of Calais and Capture (1347) 118 

— Invasion of the Scots and Battle of Nevill's Cross 118 

1349. The Black Death 119 

The Manorial System 119 

Else of Copyholders 120 

Effect of the Black Death 120 

1355. Invasion of France by way of Gascony 120 

1356. Battle of Poitiers 120 

1360. Peace made at Bretigny 122 

Kesults of the War 122 

— Treaty with Scotland 122 

1367. Expedition to Spain 122 

1369. Kenewal of the War 123 

1372. Defeat of the English off Kochelle 123 

Statutes of Provisors (1351), Praemunire (1353), and 

Treason (1352) 124 

Unpopularity of the Pope and Clergy 125 

Rise of the Lollards 125 

John of Gaunt 125 

1371. John Wycliffe 126 

— Clerical Officers dismissed 126 

1376. The Good Parliament 126 

— Impeachment 126 

— Death of the Black Prince 126 

1377. Death of Edward III 126 

CHAPTER IV. 
RiCHAED II. (1377-1399). 

Marriages of Edward Ill's. Family 127 

Formation of a Council 128 

1381. Rising of the Peasants 128 

1388. The Peace and War Parties 129 

— Fall of Suffolk and De Vere 129 

Richard assumes Power 130 

1389. The Lollards 130 

1397. Fall of Gloucester and his Friends 130 

1398. Parliament of Shrewsbury 131 

— Quarrel of Hereford and Norfolk 131 

1399. Confiscation of John of Gaunt's Property 131 

— Lancaster's Revolt 132 

— Richard Dethroned 132 



Contents. xvii 



BOOK Y. 

DATE Page 

The York and Lancaster Kings 135-168 

CHAPTER I. 
Heney IY. (1399-1413). 

1400. Rebellion in favour of Richard 138 

1401. Act De Heretico Comburendo 138 

1400. Glendower's Rebellion 139 

— War with. Scotland 139 

1402. Battles of Nesbit Moor and Homildon Hill 139 

1103. Rebellion of the Percies 139 

— Battle of Shrewsbury 140 

1405. Rebellion of Scrope and Mowbray 140 

— Capture of James of Scotland 141 

Armagnacs and Orleanists 141 

Constitutional Rule of Henry IV 141 

Retainers 141 

1413. Death of Henry 142 

CHAPTER 11. 

Henry Y. (1413-1423). 

1413. Persecution of the Lollards 143 

1415. French War renewed 144 

— Conspiracy of Cambridge 144 

— Siege of Harfleur 144 

— March to Calais 145 

' — Battle of Agincourt 146, 147 

1419. Murder of the Duke of Burgundy 147 

1420. Treaty of Troyes 148 

1421. Battle of Beauge 148 

1422. Death of Henry Y 148 

CHAPTER ni. 

Henry VI. (1422-1461). 

Arrangements for the King's Minority , 149 

Policy of Bedford 149 

1423. Battles of Crevant and Verneuil (1424) 150 

1428. Siege of Orleans 150 

Jeanne Daro 151 



xviii Contents, 

DATE Page 

1435. Death of Bedford 151 

Quarrels between Gloucester and Beaufort 152 

1445. King's Marriage 153 

1447. Death of Gloucester 153 

1449. Loss of France 154 

1450. Fall of Suffolk 154 

— Cade's Eebellion 154 

Yorkist Party formed 155 

1453. Battle of Chatillon 156 

— Illness of Henry and Protectorate of York 156 

— Birth of a Prince of Wales 156 

1455. Wars of the Eoses begin 156 

— First Battle of St. Alban's 156 

1459. Battles of Bloreheath and Nortliamptcn (1460) 157 

1460. York acknowledged as Heir 158 

— Battles of Wakefield, Mortimers Cross (1461) 158 

1461. Second Battle of St. Alban's 158 

CHAPTER IV. 
Edwakd IV. (1461-1483). 

1461. Battle of Towton 159 

1464. Battles of Hedgeley Moor and Hexham 159 

The Yorkist and Lancastrian Parties 160 

1464. Edward's Marriage 160 

1469. Conspiracy of Warwick and Clarence 160 

1470. Alliance between Margaret and Warwick 161 

— Expulsion and return of EJward 161 

1471.- Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury 161 

— Death of Plenry VI 162 

1475. Invasion of France 162 

1483. Death and Policy of Edward IV 162 

CHAPTER V. 
Edwaed V. (1483); Richard III. (1483-1485). 

Struggle for Power 163 

Character of Richard of Gloucester 164 

1483, Deposition of Edward V 165 

— Popularity of Richard III 165 

— iNlurder of the Princes 165 

— Buckingham's Rebellion , . 165 

1485. Invasion of Henry of Richmond 166 

— Battle of Bosworth 167 



Contents^ xix 



BOOK YI. 

DATE Pci-ge 

The House OF Tudor (1485-1 603) 170-219 

CHAPTER I. 
Henry VII. (1485-1509). 

Policy of Henry VII 172 

1487. Rebellions of Simnel and Warbeck (1492-1497) 173, 1 74 

1497. Cornish Rebellion 174 

1494. Poynings' Rule iu Ireland 174 

1487. Court of Star Chamber 174 

" Morton's Fork " 175 

European Alliances 176 

1501. Marriage and Death of Prince Arthur 177 

1502. Marriage of Margaret to James IV 177 

1492. Discovery of the New World 177 

Change from Mediseval to Modern Europe 178 

CHAPTER II. 

Henkt VIII. (1509-1547). 

Policy of Henry VIII 179 

1509. Marriage with Katharine 179 

1513. Invasion of France 179 

— Battle of Guinegaste 179 

— Battle of Flodden 180 

1514. Marriage of Mary to Louis XII 180 

Thomas Wolsey 181 

Foreign Policy 182 

Difficulty about Succession 183 

1521. Execution of the Duke of Buckingham 183 

1529. Pope asked to divorce Katharine 183 

— Case called to Rome 184 

— Act of Praemunire enforced 184 

— Parliament called 184 

— Fall of Wolsey .,., 184 

Connection of the Church of England with Rome 1 84 

1534. Authority of the Pope abolished 185 

Election of Bishops 185 

— Separation from Rome completed 185 

Church Discipline igc 

1534. Marriage with Anne Boleyu 186 



XX Contejits. 

DATE Page 

1536. Execution of Anne, Marriage with Jane Seymour 187 

Thomas Cromwell 187 

English Keligious Orders 187 

— Dissolution of the Smaller Monasteries 188 

— The Pilgrimage of Grace 189 

1639. Dissolution of the Greater Monasteries 189 

Movement towards Protestantism 190 

— The Six Articles 190 

1540. Marriages with Anne of Cleves, Katharine Howard (1540), 

and Katharine Parr (1543) 190, 191 

— Execution of Cromwell 191 

1541. Countess of Salisbury executed 191 

Debasement of the Coinage 191 

1536. Union of England and Wales 192 

Policy towards Ireland 192 

Wars with Scotland and France 192 

1547. Execution of Surrey 193 

— Death and Character of Henry YIII 193 

CHAPTER III. 

Edward VI. (1547-1553). 

Arrangements for the Minority 194 

Character of Hertford 194 

Images and Pictures in Churches defaced 195 

Property of the Guilds confiscated 195 

1547. Invasion of Scotland and Battle of Pinkie 195 

1549. First Prayer-book of Edward VI 196 

— Execution of Lord Seymour 196 

— Eebellions in Devonshire and Norfolk 197 

— Somerset (Hertford) deprived of Power 198 

Policy of the Council '. 198 

1552. Execution of Somerset 199 

Parliament of 1554 , , i^g 

Condition of the Country 200 

Illness of the King 200 

Nortliumberland's Plot in favour of Lady Jane Grey 200 

1553. Death of Edward 200 

CHAPTER IV. 
Mart (1553-1558). 

Failure of Lady Jane's attempt 201 

Execution of Northumberland 202 



Contents. xxi 

Page 

DATE ^ 

Mary's Advisers, Kenard and Gardiner 202 

1554. The Spamsk Matcli 203 

— Wyatt's Eebellion, and Execution of Lady Jane 203 

— EcclesiasticalPolicyofEdwardVI. and Henry YIII. reversed 203 

1555. Persecution of the Protestants 204 

1557. War with France and Loss of Calais 205 

1558. Death of Mary 206 

CHAPTER V. 

Elizabeth (1558-1603). 

Other Claimants to the Crown 207 

Policy towards Philip of Spain 207 

1559. Religious Settlement 208 

Roman Catholics and Puritans 209 

1583. Court of High Commission established 209 

Foreign Policy 209 

Scotch Alliance proposed 209 

The Hugenots and Netherlanders 210 

1561. Queen Mary in Scotland 211 

1566. Murder of Rizzio and of Darnley 211 

1567. Deposition and flight of Mary (1568) 211 

1569. Revolt of the North 212 

Religious Intolerance 212 

Elizabeth's Favourites 212 

Plots in favour of Mary 213 

The English in the New World 214 

1578. Colonization of North America attempted 214 

Hostility of the English and Spaniards 214 

1587. Execution of Mary Queen of Scots 215 

1588. The Spanish Armada 216 

— The Earl of Essex 217 

State of Ireland 217 

1595. O'Neal's Rebellion 217 

1601. Essex's Rebellion and Execution 218 

Attitude of Parliament 218 

— Monopolies 218 

Distress among the Poor and the Poor Law 219 

1603. Death of Elizabeth • . • 219 



xxii Contents. 

BOOK YI. 

DATE PO-Se 

The Stuarts and the Commonwealth (1603- 

1714) 222-316 

CHAPTER I. 
James L (1603-1625). 

James' Character and Policy 224 

1603. The Main and Bye Plots 225 

— Imprisonment of Raleigh 225 

1604. Hampton Court Conference 225 

The Authorized Version of the Bible 225 

1605. The Gunpowder Plot 226 

1604. First Parliament of James 226 

— Goodwin's Case 227 

— Shirley's Case 227 

1608. The Impositions 227 

Disputes on General Politics 227 

James' Foreign Policy 227 

1612. Deaths of Cecil and Prince Henry 228 

The Spanish Match 228 

1611. Colonization of Ulster 228 

1607. Colonization of America begins 229 

Virginia and New Plymouth (1620) 229 

Trading Companies 229 

Carr, Earl of Somerset 229 

George Villiers, afterwards Duke of Buckingham 230 

1614. The Addled Parliament 230 

1615. Dismissal of Coke 230 

1617. Raleigh's Expedition and Death (1618) 231 

1618. Thirty Years' War begins 231 

Parliament of 1621 231 

1621. Bacon's Impeachment 232 

1623. Charles and Buckingham go to Madrid 232 

1624. Quarrel with Spain 232 

1625. Death of James 232 

CHAPTER II. 

Charles I. (1625-1649). 

Character of Charles 1 233 

1625. Marriage of Hemietta Maria 234 



Contents. xxiii 



DATE 



Page 

1625. Tonnage and Poundage dropped 234 

— Expedition to Cadiz 234 

1626. Second Parliament 234 

1627. Expedition to Eoclielle 235 

1628. Third Parliament 235 

— Petition of Eight 235 

Policy of Laud 236 

Policy of Wentworth 236 

1628. Assassination of Buckingham 236 

— Tonnage and Poundage collected 236 

1629. Parliament Dissolved 237 

— Eliot's Imprisonment and Death (1632) 237 

Illegal Exactions 237 

1633. WentvTorth in Ireland 238 

Star Chamber and High Commission 239 

1634. Ship-money first levied. 239 

1637. Hampden's Trial 240 

American Settlements 240 

— Scots refuse to receive a Liturgy 240 

1640. The Short Parliament 241 

— "War with the Scots 241 

— Long Parliament meets 241 

Composition of the Parliament 242 

— Triennial Act 242 

1641. Strafford's Trial and Execution 242 

— Court of Star Chamber abolished 242 

— Court of High Commission abolished 243 

— The Boot and Branch Bill 243 

— Charles goes to Scotland 243 

— Irish Kebellion 244 

— The Grand Eemonstrance 244 

1642. Charles impeaches the Five Members 245 

— Charles leaves London 245 

— Preparations for the Irish War 245 

— The Militia Bill 245 

— Preparations for Civil War 246 

Distribution of Parties 246 

Aug. King raises his Standard at Nottingham 247 

Oct. Battle of Edgehill 248 

1643. War in North, West, East, and South 248 

— Death of Hampden 248 

— Siege of Gloucester 248 

— First Battle of Newbury 249 



xxvi Contents. 

DATE P'^Se 

1681. Discomfiture of the Whigs 275 

1683. Kemodelling of the Boroughs 275 

1683. The Eye House Plot 276 

— Executions of Russell and Sidney 276 

1685. Death of Charles II 277 

Law of Settlement 277 

CHAPTER V. 

James II. (1685-1689). 

James* Character and First Acts 278 

1685. Risings of Argyll and Monmouth 279 

— Battle of Sedgemoor 279 

— The Bloody Assize 280 

1686. Catholic Emancipation planned 280 

Coui't of Ecclesiastical Commission revived 281 

1687. Oxford and Cambridge attacked 281 

Overtures to Nonconformists 281 

Attempts to secure a Compliant Parliament 282 

1687-88. Declarations of Indulgence 283 

1688. Birth of James' Son 283 

— Trial of the Seven Bishops 283 

— Invitation to William of Orange 284 

— - James reverses his Policy 285 

— Landing of William of Orange 285 

— Treachery of Churchill 285 

— Flight of James 285 

— William and Mary King and Queen 286 

1689. The Declaration of Right 287 

CHAPTER VI. 

William (1689-1702); Maet (1689-1694). 

1689. Character of William 289 

— First Ministry 289 

— The Revenue settled 290 

— The Nonjurors 290 

— The Mutiny Act 290 

— The Toleration Act 290 

— The Indemnity Bill , 291 

— The Revolution in Scotland 291 

— Battle of Killiecrankie 292 

1692. Massacre of Glencoe 292 



Contents. xxvii 

DATE Page 

1689. Events in Ireland 292 

— Sieges of Londonderry and Ennisldllen 293 

1690. Battle of the Boyne , 293 

— Battle of Beacliy Head 293 

— Battle of Aughrim and Treaty of Limerick 294 

Disaffection at home 204 

1689. War with France to 1697 294 

1692. Battle of La Hogue 295 

War in the Netherlands 295 

1697. Peace of Ryswick 296 

Party Government 296 

1693. The National Debt 296 

1694. The Bank of England 297 

The Land Bank 297 

1696. Coinage renewed 297 

1694. Triennial Act 298 

1695. Liberty of the Press 298 

Plots against the Government 299 

1694. Death of Mary 299 

1696. Trials for Treason regulated 299 

1697. Fenwick's Case 300 

Party Struggles 300 

1701. The Act of Settlement 301 

The Partition Treaties 302 

— Louis recognizes the Pretender 303 

1702. Death of William 303 

CHAPTER VII. 

Anne (1702-17U). 

Character of Anne 304 

Marlborough's Policy 304 

1702. War with France to 1713 305 

1704. Battle of Blenheim 306 

— Capture of Gibraltar 306 

1706. Battle of Ramillies 306 

1708. Battle of Oudenarde 307 

1709. Battle of Malplaquet 307 

Capture of Lille, Tournay, and Mons 308 

The War in Spain 308 

1710. Capture of Douay 308 

Conquest of Acadie 308 

Tory Ministers changed for Whigs 309 



xxviii Contents. 

DATE Page 

1707. TTnion of England and Scotland 309 

1699. Darien Scheme 309 

Terms of the Union 310 

Eesults of the Union 310 

1710. Prosecution of Dr. Sacheverell 311 

Tory Eeaction 311 

Policy of Harley and St. John 312 

1711. Occasional Conformity Act 312 

New Peers created 312 

1713. Peace of Utrecht 313 

Succession Question 313 

Fall of St. John 314 

Hanoverian Succession secured 314 

1714. Death of Anne 314 



BOOK YIII. 

The House of Hanover (17 14- ) 318-453 

CHAPTEE I. 

Geoege I. (1714-1727). 

Character of George 1 320 

The Leading Whigs 321 

1715. The Eiot Act 321 

— Insurrection of '15 321 

■■ — Battles of Sherriffmuir and Preston 322 

Foreign Policy 322 

1716. Septennial Act 323 

Stanhope becomes Leading Minister 324 

1718. Occasional Conformity and Schism Acts repealed 324 

1719. The Peerage Bill 324 

1720. The South Sea Scheme 325 

Title of Prime Minister, or Premier 326 

1721. Robert Walpole Premier 327 

1722. Atterbury's Plot 328 

1724. Quarrel between Walpole and Carteret 328 

— Wood's Halfpence 328 

— The " Drapier Letters " 329 

Pulteney and Bolingbroke's opposition 329 

The Craftsman 329 

The Prince of Wales 329 

1727. Death of George 1 330 



Contents, xxix 

CHAPTER II. 

Geokgb II. (1727-1760). 

DATE Page 

Queen Caroline 332 

1730. Lord Townshend retires 333 

1733. The Excise Scheme 333 

1736. The Porteous Riots 334 

1730. The Methodists 334 

The Opposition 335 

1739. Hostilities between England and Spain to 1T48 336 

1742. Fall of Walpole 337 

"Wilmington Prime Minister 337 

1744. Pelham's Broad-bottomed Ministry 337 

1741. War of the Austrian Succession to 1748 338 

1743. Battle of Dettingen 338 

1744. Anson's Voyage completed 338 

1745. Battle of Fontenoy 338 

— The Jacobite Rebellion of '45 339 

Geography of Scotland 339 

— Battle of Preston Pans 340 

— The March to Derby 341 

1746. Battle of Falkirk 341 

— Battle of Culloden 342 

Pitt and Fox 343 

1748. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 343 

1750. National Debt Rediiced 344 

1752. Change in the Calendar 344 

Newcastle Prime Minister 344 

1756. The Seven Years' War to 1763 345 

English and French in America 345 

English and French in India 346 

State of India 346 

Dupleix's Scheme 346 

Robert Clive 346 

1757. Battle of Plassey 347 

1756. Loss of Minorca 347 

1757. Execution of Byng 347 

Devonshire Prime Minister 347 

Newcastle's Second Ministry 348 

Pitt " saves the Country " 348 

Victories in Europe 348 

1759. Capture of Quebec 349 

1760. Battle of Wandewash 350 

c 



XXX Contents, 



CHAPTER III. 
Geokge in., First Part (1760-1789). 

DATE Page 

Character of George III 352 

Power of the Whig Families 353 

1761. Fall of Pitt and Newcastle (1763) 353 

1763. Bute Prime Minister 354 

1763. Peace of Paris 354 

George Grenville Prime Minister 355 

" The King's Friends " 355 

— Prosecution of Wilkes 355 

— Attempt to tax the Colonies 356 

1765. Stamp Act passed 35^ 

— Eockingham Prime Minister 357 

— Eepeal of the Stamp Act 357 

1766. Grafton Prime Minister 357 

Chatham's Illness 358 

Fresh American Taxation 358 

1769. Wilkes elected for Middlesex 358 

— The Letters of " Junius " 359 

1770. Lord North Prime Minister 359 

1771. The Publication of Debates 359 

1773. Boston Tea Riots. 360 

1774. Boston Port Act 360 

1776. Battles of Lexington and Bunker's Hill 361 

1776. Declaration of Independence 361 

1778. Capitulation at Saratoga 362 

— France, Spain, and Holland join the Colonists 362 

— Death of Chatham 362 

Economical Reform 363 

1780. Great Yorkshire Petition 363 

Parliamentary Reform , 363 

Catholic Emancipation 364 

— The Gordon Riots 364 

1779. Siege of Gibraltar to 1783 364 

1781. Surrender at Yorktown 365 

1783. Rockingham's Second Ministry 365 

— Burke's Economical Reform 366 

State of Ireland 366 

The Volunteers 367 

— Grattan's Declaration of Right 367 

— Shelburne Prime Minister 367 

— Resignation of Fox and Burke 367 



Contents. xxxi 

HATE Page 

1783. Treaty of Versailles 368 

— Coalition of Fox and North 368 

India under the East India Company 369 

1773. Lord North's Kegulating Act 369 

— Warren Hastings to 1785 369 

1783. Fox's India Bill 370 

— William Pitt Prime Minister 370 

Pitt and George III 371 

1784. Pitt's Indian Act 371 

1786. Impeachment of Warren Hastings 372 

1785. Pitt's Scheme of Parliamentary Keform 372 

Commercial Policy 372 

1786. The Sinking Fund 373 

1788. Slave Trade regulated 373 

— King becomes Insane 373 

— Kegency Question 373 

— King's Kecovery 374 

Eise of England's Manufacturing Industry 374 

Spinning and Weaving 374 

The Steam Engine 374 

Canals 374 

Koads 374 

Effect on the Country 375 

CHAPTER IV. 
George III., Second Paet (1789-1820). 

1789. The French Eevolution , 376 

Condition of France 377 

— Meeting of the States-General 378 

Progress of the Revolution 379 

1793. Execution of Louis XVI 379 

1790. Burke's " Reflections on the French Revolution " 380 

Pitt desirous of Peace 380 

1793. War with France 381 

Repressive Measures 381 

— First Coalition against France 382 

Naval War 382 

1794. Battle of the 1st of June 382 

1797. Battle of Cape St. Vincent 382 

— Battle of Camperdown 382 

— Mutiny in the Fleet 382 

Annexation of Colonies 383 



xxxii Contents. 



DATE 

1794 



1801. 
1802 



1798 
1800 



1799, 
1803 



Page 

Expenses of the War S^S 

The Keign of Terror in France SM 

Napoleon Buonaparte SM 

1798. Egyptian Expedition 3^4 

_ Battle of the Nile 3^5 

1799. Siege of Acre 3^5 

Battle of Copenhagen 3°^ 

Peace of Amiens 38? 

Condition of Ireland 3^7 

The Koman Catholics 3^7 

The Orangemen 3^7 

The United Irishmen 3^7 

Irish Rebellion - 388 

The Union of England and Ireland 3^8 

Terms of the Union 3^8 

1801. Catholic Emancipation rejected by George III 389 

Addington Prime Minister 389 

War in India to 1803 389 

Storming of Seringapatam 389 

Battles of Assaye and Laswaree 389 

Eenewal of the War with France till 1814 390 

1804. Pitt's Second Ministry 39° 

The Camp at Boulogne 391 

1805. Battle of Trafalgar 392 

— Battle of Austerlitz 39^ 

1806. Death of Pitt 392 

— Lord Grenville Prime Minister 392 

1807. Slave Trade abolished 393 

1806. The Berlin Decrees 393 

1807. The Orders in Council 393 

— Portland's Second Ministry 394 

1806. Battle of Maida 394 

Naval Operations 394 

Causes of the Peninsular War 395 

1808. Battle of Vimiero 395 

— Convention of Cintra 397 

— Sir John Moore's Advance 397 

1809. Battle of Corunna 397 

Sir Arthur Wellesley 39^ 

— Battle of Talavera 398 

— Walcheren Expedition 398 

— Quarrel between Canning and Castlereagh 399 

— Perceval Prime Minister 399 



Contents, xxxiii 

DATE Page 

1810. Permanent Insanity of George III 399 

— Lines of Torres Vedras 399 

1811. Battles of Fuentes d'Onoro and Albuera 400 

1812. Battle of Salamanca 401 

— Napoleon's Invasion of Kussia 401 

1813. Battle of Vittoria 402 

1814. Invasion of France 402 

— Battle of Toulouse 403 

— First Treaty of Paris 403 

1815. Keturn of Napoleon 403 

— Battle of Waterloo 404 

— Second Treaty of Paris 405 

— The Holy Alliance 406 

1813. War with the United States to 1814 407 

1815. Condition of the Empire 407 

Causes of Depression of Trade 408 

Foreign Competition 408 

Introduction of Machinery 408 

~ The New Corn Law 409 

Discontent in the Country 409 

Desire for Parliamentary Reform 410 

1819. St. Peter's Field Meeting 411 

— The Six Acts 411 

1820. Death of George III 412 

CHAPTER V. 
George IV. (1820-1830). 

1820. Cato Street Conspiracy 413 

Family of George III 413 

1817. Death of the Princess Charlotte 413 

1820. Bill of Pains and Penalties 413 

Symptoms of Progress 415 

1822. Death of Castlereagh 415 

Canning's Policy 415 

The Reform Question 416 

Huskisson's Policy 417 

Catholic Emancipation 417 

Daniel O'Connell 417 

1827. Canning Prime Minister 418 

Goderich Prime Minister 418 

— Battle of Navarino 418 

1828. Wellington Prime Minister 419 



xxxiv Contents. 

DATE Pagi 

1828. O'Connell elected for Clare 419 

1829. Repeal of the Catholic Disahiiities 420 

1830. Agitation for Eepeal 420 

— Death of George lY 420 

CHAPTER VI. 

William IV. (1830-1837). 

1830. Opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway 421 

Wellington's Declaration against Eeform 422 

— Lord Grey Prime Minister 423 

1832. The First Reform Bill passed 424 

Struggle over the Bill 424 

Features of the Reform Bill 425 

The Reformed Parliament 425 

1833. Slavery abolished 425 

— Education Grant 426 

— First Factory Act 426 

— Irish Church reformed 426 

1834. New Poor Law 426 

— Melbourne's First Ministry 427 

— Peel's First Ministry 427 

1835. Melbourne again Prime Minister 427 

— Municipal Reform Act 427 

Tithe Question 428 

1836. Tax on Newspapers reduced 428 

— Division Lists published 428 

1837. Death of William IV 428 

CHAPTER VIL 

ViCTOEIA (1837-). 

— Separation from Hanover 429 

Canada Question 430 

1838. The Chartists 431 

The Anti-Corn-Law League 432 

1839. Bedchamber Question 433 

— Penny Post 433 

Progress of the Colonies 433 

1841. Sir R. Peel again Prime Minister 433 

Indian Affairs 434 

First Afghan War, 1839-1841 434 

1843. Scinde annexed 4'^i; 



Contents. xxxv 

DATE Pa-ge 

1846. First Sikh War 435 

1843. Free Church in Scotland 435 

1844. Maynooth Grant 435 

1846. Repeal of the Corn Laws 436 

Lord George Bentinck and Mr. Disraeli 437 

— Lord John Kussell Prime Minister 437 

1848. The Year of Revolutions 437 

— O'Connell and Eepeal 438 

— Chartist Meeting and Petition 438 

Parliamentary Reform 438 

1849. Parliamentary Institutions in Australia 439 

— Navigation Laws repealed 439 

1851. Great Exhibition 439 

Louis Napoleon Emperor of the French 439 

1852. Lord Derby Prime Minister 439 

— Lord Aberdeen Prime Minister 440 

1854. The Russian War 440 

Lord Palmerston Prime Minister 441 

1857. The Indian Mutiny 442 

1858. Conspiracy to Murder Bill 443 

— Lord Derby again Prime Minister 443 

1859. Lord Palmerston again Prime Minister /\^/\ 

1860. Kingdom of Italy formed 444 

Civil War in United States, 1861-1865 444 

Union of Germany , 445 

1861. Death of the Prince Consort 44c 

1865. Death of Lord Palmerston 446 

Earl Russell Prime Minister 446 

1866. The Cave of Adullam 446 

Lord Derby Prime Minister 446 

1867. The Second Reform Bill passed 447 

1868. Mr. Disraeli Prime Minister 447 

Fenianism in Ireland 447 

Mr. Gladstone attacks the Irish Church 447 

1868. Mr. Gladstone becomes Prime Minister 447 

1869. Irish Church disestablished 447 

1870. Irish Land Act 447 

— Education Act 447 

Other Reforms 443 

Franco-German War, 1870, 1871 448 

1874, General Election 44^ 

— Mr. Disraeli Prime Minister 448 

1877. Russo-Turkish War 449 



XXX vi Contents. 

DATE PcLge 

1878. The Second Afghan War 449 

1879. Irish Land League formed 449 

1880. General Election 450 

— Mr. Gladstone's Second Administration 450 

1885. The Third Reform Bill passed 450 

— Lord Salisbury Prime Minister 451 

— General Election 45 1 

— Mr. Gladstone Prime Minister 451 

1886. Mr. Gladstone's Home Kule Bill 452 

— General Election of 1886 452 

Conclusion 453 

Appendix 455 

Index 458 



TABLE OF THE KINGS AND QUEENS 
OF ENGLAND SINCE EGBERT 

Page 

Egbert, 802-839 19 

Ethelwulf, 839-858 24 

Ethelbald, 858-860 24 

Ethelbert, 860-866 24 

Ethelred I., 866-871 24 

Alfred, 871-901 24 

Edward the Elder, 901-925 26 

Athelstan, 925-940 27 

Edmund I., 940-946 28 

Edred, 946-955 28 

Edwy, 955-959 28 

Edgar, 959-975 28 

Edward the Martyr, 975-979 29 

Ethelred the Unready, 979-1016 29 

Edmund Ironside, 1016 30 

Canute, 1016-1035 30 

Harold I., 1035-1040 31 

Hardicanute, 1040-1042 32 

Edward the Confessor, 1042-1066 32 

Harold H., 1066 35 

William I., 1066-1087 42 

William H., 1087-1100 48 

Henry I., 1100-1135 53 

Stephen, 1135-1154 59 

Henry H., 1154-1189 67 

Kichard I., 1189-1199 76 

John, 1199-1216 79 

Henry HI., 1216-1272 85 

Edward I., 1272-1307 96 

Edward IL. 1307-1327 105 



xxxviii Kings and Queens of England since Egbert. 

Page 

Edward III, 1327-1B77 , in 

Kicliard II., 1377-1399 127 

Henry IV., 1399-1413 138 

Henry V., 1413-1422 143 

Henry VI., 1422-1461 149 

Edward IV., 1461-1483 159 

Edward V., 1483 163 

Kichard III., 1483-1485 165 

Henry VII., 1485-1509 172 

Henry VIII., 1509-1547 179 

Edward VI., 1547-1553 194 

Mary, 1553-1558 201 

Elizabeth, 1558-1603 207 

James I., 1603-1625 224 

Charles I., 1625-1649 233 

Commonwealth and Protectorate, 1649-1660 255 

Charles 11., 1660-1685 264 

James IL, 1685-1688 278 

William and Mary, 1688-1694 1 

William, 1694-1702 \ "^ 

Anne, 1702-1714 304 

George L, 1714-1727 320 

George II., 1727-1760 332 

George III., 1760-1820 352 

George IV., 1820-1830 413 

William IV., 1830-1837 421 

Victoria, 1837- 429 



PRIME MINISTERS SINCE SIR ROBERT 

WALPOLE 

Page 

Walpole, 1720-1742 327 

Wilmington, 1742-1743 337 

Henry Pelham, 1743-1754 337 

Duke of Newcastle, 1754-1756 '. 344 

Duke of Devonshire, 1756-1757 347 

Newcastle (again), 1757-1762 348 

Lord Bute, 1762-1763 354 

George Grenville, 1763-1765 355 

Lord Kockingham, 1765-1766 357 

Duke of Grafton, 1766-1770 358 

Lord North, 1770-1782 359 

Kockingham (again), 1782 365 

Lord Shelburne, 1782-1783 367 

Duke of Portland, 1783 368 

William Pitt, 1783-1801 370 

Addington, 1801-1804 389 

Pitt (again), 1804-1806 390 

Lord Grenville, 1806-1807 392 

Portland (again), 1807-1809 394 

Perceval, 1809-1812 399 

Lord Liverpool, 1812-1827 401 

Canning, 1827 418 

Lord Goderich, 1827-1828 419 

Duke of Wellington, 1828-1830 419 

Lord Grey, 1830-1834 422 

Lord Melbourne, 1834 427 

Sir R. Peel, 1834-1835 427 

Melbourne (again), 1835-1841 427 

Peel (again), 1841-1846 434 

Lord John Eussell, 1846-1852 437 

Lord Derby, 1852 439 



xl Prime Ministers since Sir Robert Walpole. 

Page 

Lord Aberdeen, 1852-1855 440 

Lord Palmerston, 1855-1858 441 

Derby (again), 1858-1859 443 

Palmerston (again), 1859-1865 444 

Earl Kussell (again), 1865-1866 446 

Derby (again), 1866-1868 446 

Disraeli, 1868 447 

Gladstone, 1868-1874 447 

Disraeli (again), 1874-1880 448 

Gladstone (again), 1880-1885 450 

Lord Salisbury, 1885-1886 451 

Gladstone (again), 1886 451 

Salisbury (again), 1886- 452 



TABLES OF GENEALOGIES 

BOOK I. 

Page 

NO. 

I. Kings of the House of Egbert, 802-1066 3 

II. Danish Kings of England 3 

BOOK II. 

III. The Norman Kings of England 4i 

IV. Kings of Scotland, 1066-1214 4i 

BOOK III. 

V. The Earlier Angevin or Plantagenet Kings, 1154-1272. 64 

VI. Kings of Scotland, 1153-1286 64 

VII. Kings of France, 987-1285 65 

BOOK IV. 

VIII. Later Angevin or Plantagenet Kings, 1272-1399 94 

IX. Kings of Scotland, 1165-1406 95 

X. Kings of France, 1270-1422, and Edward III.'s claim to 

France " " 95 

Koger Mortimer's claim to succeed Kichard II 129 

BOOK V. 

XL The Houses of York and Lancaster, 1399-1485 136 

XIL Kings of Scotland, 1306-1488 I37 

XIIL Kings of France, 1350-1515 I37 

The Beauforts ^52 

The Staffords 163 

The De la Poles Appendix 



xlii Tables of Genealogies, 



BOOK VI. 

NO. Piige 

XIV. The House of Tudor, 1485-1603 170 

XV. Kings of Scotland, 1460-1603 170 

XVI. Kings of France, 1485-1603 171 

Charles V. of Spain 176 

The Howards 186 

The Poles 191 

The Dudleys and Sydneys (later Sidney) 198 

The Courtenays 202 

Darnley 211 

BOOK VII. 

XVII. The Stuarts, 1603-1714 223 

XVIII. Kings of France, 1589-1715 223 

William of Orange 27 1 

The House of Spain, to illustrate the disputed Spanish 

Succession 302 

BOOK VII r. 

XIX. The House of Hanover, 1714 to present day 310 

XX. Kings of France, 1714-1848 318 

The exiled House of Stuart 318 

The Fox Family 345 

The Pitts and the Grenvilles 355 



TABLES OF CHIEF GENERAL EVENTS 

Pa-ge 

55 B.O.-1066 A.D 38 

1066-1154 62 

1154-1399. 132 

1399-1485 167 

1485-1603 21C 

1603-1714 316 

1714-1760 350 

1760-1789 375 

1789-1820 412 

1820-1837 420 

1887-1887 452 



TABLES OF CHIEF BATTLES, SIEGES, 
AND TREATIES 

55 B.C.-1066 A.D 38 

1066-1154 62 

1154-1399 133 

1399-1485 168 

1485-1603 220 

Civil War 263 

1603-1714 315 

1714-1760 330 

1760-1789 375 

1789-1820 412 

1820-1887 453 



LIST OF MAPS AND PLANS 

Page 
England and Southern Scotland, to illustrate History from 

55 B.C. to A.D. 1154 2 

France, to illustrate English Affairs in that Country, 1066-1815. 40 
England and Southern Scotland, to illustrate History from 1154- 

1603 64 

Plan of Crecy 116 

Field of Poitiers. (Adapted from Spruner.) 121 

North of France, to illustrate the Campaigns of Crecy and 

Agincourt I45 

Field of Agincourt. (Adapted from Spruner.) 146 

Map of the Flodden District 180 

British Isles, to illustrate History since 1603 222 

Operations connected with Edgehill .- 247 

Operations of Marston Moor 250 

The Netherlands 288 

Battle of Blenheim 305 

Battle of Eamillies 307 

India, to illustrate the English Conquest 331 

Wolfe's Operations at Quebec 349 

Part of North America, to illustrate its settlement by the 

English and French, the Conquest of Canada, and the "War 

of Independence 351 

Spain, to illustrate the War in the Peninsula, 1808-1814 396 

Operations of Waterloo 404 

Waterloo at noon 405 

Waterloo at seven p.m 406 

The Operations in the East, 1854-1856 440 

Population Map 456, 457 



BOOK I 

ENGLAND BEFORE TEE NOBMAN CONQUEST 



1 




I.-KmGS OF THE HOUSE OF EGBERT. 802-1066. 

Egbert, 802-839. 
Ethelwulf, 839-868. 

Etheibald, Ethelbert, Ethelred I.. Alfrpd 

858-860. 860-866. 866-871. ' 871-9?L 



Ethelwald. Edward the Elder, 901-925. 



Athelstan, 925-940. Edmund I., 940-946. Edred, 946-955. 
Edwy, 955-959. Edgar, 959-975. 



Edward the Martyr, Ethelred the Unready, = (1) El^iva • 
^'^-9^^- 979-1016. •" I (2) Emma of 
. I Normandy. 

(1) Edmund Ironside, (2) Edward the Confessor, 

1016. 1042-1066. 



Edmund, d. 1050. Edward, d. 1057. 



Edgar Atheling, d. 1120. Margaret, d. 1093 = Malcolm Canmore, d. 1096. 

Matilda, d. 1118 = Henry I., d. 1135. 

II.— THE DANISH KINGS OF ENGLAND. 

Harold Blatand or Bluetooth. 



Sweyn, d. 1014. Great-granddaughter of 

Can'ute, 1016-1035. ^"'"'^ ""'^''"^ = ^^^^^^• 



Harold I., 1035-1040. Hardicanute (Emma's son). 

1040-1042. 



Harold II., Edith, = Edward Tostig, 
d. 1066. d. 1075. the d. 1066. 

Confessor. 
Reigning sovereigns in large type. 
(2) signifies by second wife or husband. 



CHAPTER I. 

BEITATN UmDEE THE KOMANS. 

Men of pure English blood belong to the Low German group of 
the Teutonic branch of the Aryan family of nations. Few or none 
The Eneiish ^^ ^^' howevcr, are of pure descent, and some of the 
race. ^ggt qualities of modem Englishmen are due to the 

mixture of the English blood with that of other races. The 
modern English race is also descended from the primitive inhabitanta 
of these islands, from the Celts or ancient Britons, from the North- 
men, or Danes, from the Normans, and from French and Flemish 
settlers, who have at one time or another settled in these islands. 

With the exception, however, of the primitive inhabitants, all 
these nations are members of one family, the Aryan, which origi- 

The Aryan nally dwelt in the highlands of Central Asia, and has 
family. since emigrated and established colonies in all parts 
of the world. One branch of this family is that of the Hindoos, who 
are now, with us, subjects of the Queen ; to the same family 
belonged the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, and most of the 
nations of modern Europe. 

The first Aryans who are known to have settled in Europe were 

the Celts, the Greeks, and the Italians, who, driving out before them 

_ . or conquering the primitive inhabitants, exactly as the 

Early migra- . ^ . . . 

tionsofthe English have done in modern times in America and 
Australia, made homes for themselves in Greece, Italy, 
Gaul, Spain, and the British Isles. After them came the Teutons. 
One branch of these, the Germans, occupied the plain of Central 
Europe, the greater part of which is still known by their name ; 
another, the Goths, settled for the most part along the Danube ; and 
the third, the Scandinavians, seized Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. 
The last branch, of any size, to settle in Europe were the Slavs, 



The Races of Europe. 5 

whom we find living in Russia and Poland, and in many of the lands 
by the Danube, where they took the place of the Goths. 

Meanwhile the former inhabitants of Europe, who were not 
Aryans but Turanians, had either been absorbed in the ranks of 
their Aryan conquerors, or been forced to take refuare 

•> >■ ^ o Primitive in- 

in out-of-the-way places where the Aryans did not iiabitantsof 
care to follow them ; and a few of their descendants, ^^ope. 

whom we can recognize by their language, may be found there at 
the present day, such as the Basques of the Pyrenees, and the Laps 
and Fins of the north of Europe. At a much later time, two more 
Turanian races came from Asia and settled in Europe,' Later Tura- 
driving out or conquering the Aryan inhabitants, nian settlers. 
These are the Hungarians, who call themselves Magyars, and the 
Ottoman Turks, who still hold Constantinople ; but this happened in 
comparatively modern times. 

At the beginning of the Christian era, the Aryans were in 
possession of almost the whole of Europe, but even at the present 
day their migrations have not ceased ; for since the ^ ^ 

•' ° ^ ' Later migra- 

discovery of America and Australia thousands of tionsoftiie 
Aryans — ^English, Dutch, Germans, Spaniards, Portu- 
guese, and French — ^have left Europe and settled in those countries. 
Aryans, also, have dispossessed Negroes, Arabs, and Chinese in 
various parts of Africa and Asia ; indeed, not a year passes without 
the Aryan race making itself master of some district hitherto held 
by one of the other races of mankind. 

These migrations took hundreds of years — ^it is impossible to say 
how long — but the Aryans of Southern Europe had become settled 
and civilized, while those of the north were savage Early Aryan 
and barbarous. Thus the Greeks and Romans were civilization, 
cultivated and learned nations, and had produced some of the 
master-pieces of literature and art, while the Britons and Germans 
were little better than savages. 

The first civilized man who is recorded to have visited our islands 
was Pytheas, who in the fourth century before Christ was sent by 
the merchants of the Greek colony of Marseilles to Ps^theas' 
try and open up a trade with the people of the north. voyage. 
He sailed through the Straits of Gibraltar to Britain, and after visiting 
Kent, he again set sail to the east and made his way to the mouth 



6 Britain under the Romans. [ss b.c. 

of the Vistula. Thence he returned to Jutland, and after coasting 
along the shores of Norway as far as the Arctic circle, returned to 
Britain. He then sailed to Gaul, and returned to Marseilles by- 
land. The result of his discoveries was the opening up of trade 
between Marseilles and Britain. 

After a time Marseilles fell into the hands of the Romans, who, 
after defeating the Carthaginians, made themselves masters of the 
whole coast of the Mediterranean ; and their general, Julius Csesar. 
after conquering the Gauls, determined to explore the island of 
Britain, which he knew to be inhabited by a kindred race, from 
whom the Gauls of the continent had received assistance in the 
struggle with the Roman armies. With this view he made two 
expeditions in the years 55 and 54 B.C., but finding that the warlike 
inhabitants made a vigorous resistance, he made no serious attempt 
to conquer the island, but contented himself with making a treaty 
with the inhabitants, of whom he gives us a valuable account. 

A glance at the map shows that Britain is divided by nature into 

two well-marked portions. The nortli and west are rugged and 

_, . , mountainous : the south and east undulating and fertile. 

Pliysical greo- ' _ ° 

eraphyof Again, in consequence of the position of the hills, 
most of the rain falls in the north and west ; the south 
and east are comparatively dry. In the north and west the rivers 
are for the most part short and rapid ; in the south and east they 
are long, deep, and navigable. The result is that the east and 
south are districts which are fertile and easily cultivated, while 
those in the north and west are, for the most part, best suited for 
pasturage or mining. It is only within the last hundred and fifty 
years, since coal has been used instead of wood for the purpose of 
smelting iron and also for driving machinery, that the coal and iron 
of the north and west has been turned to much account, so that 
during by far the greater part of our history the south and east 
have been rich, the north and west poor. 

These circumstances have had the greatest effect upon our 

history. The strongest race has always kept the fertile lands, while 

Influence of tiie ^^^ weaker races have had to be content with the. 

physical geo- mountainous districts and poorer soils. The south, 

island on the too, GouId most easily trade with Europe, and that 

bistory. increased the civilization of its inhabitants. Nowadays 



5S B.C.] The Races of Briiain. 7 

all this is changed. Manufactures and not agriculture are the chief 
sources of our wealth ; our trade with America and the colonies is 
at least equal to our trade with Europe, and consequently the north 
and west have now attained a prosperity and importance which 
is the very reverse of their old condition. These facts must be 
borne in mind while reading the history of England, because we 
always want to know which districts are the most wealthy and 
the most civilized, as it is always those districts which are first 
seized b}'- any powerful conqueror, and which have always the most 
weight in the politics of the country. 

In Ceesar's time Great Britain and Ireland ;7ere inhabited by 
three races, of whom two were Aryans of the Celtic branch, and the 
third was Turanian. The names of the two first were Races of 
the Goidels and the Brythons, from which we get the Britain, 
names Gael and Briton ; the latter are generally called the Ivernians, 
or Hibernians, which is the same word whose root we find in Erin 
and Erse. The Ivernians must at some time have 
occupied the whole of the islands, but long before this 
period they had been driven westward by the conquering Goidels, 
and it is doubtful whether they lived as a separate race anywhere 
except in Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland. 

The Goidels, who had driven the Ivernians from the east of the 
island, had in their turn been driven westward by the Brythons. 
Accordingly we find the Goidels occupying the east 
of Ireland, North and South Wales, Cornwall and 
Devonshire, the lake district between Morecambe Bay and the 
Solway Firth, Galloway, and possibly other districts in the west of 
Scotland. In these districts their language was spoken, but it is 
believed that both in blood and speech they had been much affected 
by the Ivernians with whom they had been driven to associate by 
the conquests of the Brythons. 

The last comers, the Brythons, held all the best lands. In their 
hands was all modern England, except the Goidelic districts men- 
tioned above : and they had made their way to the 

_. . Brythons. 

shores of Cardigan Bay, so that the Goidels of North 
and South Wales were divided from one another by the Brythonic 
territory of Powys. In modern Scotland they held all the lowlands 
except Galloway, and had even made their way north of the river 



8 Britain under the Romans. r54B.c.- 

Tay. The rest of the country was divided between the Goidels of 
the west and the Ivernians of the north. 

The Ivernians, Goidels, and Brythons represent three degrees 

of civilization, the Ivernians being the lowest. Caesar found the 

British. Brythons of the south as civilized as their kinsmen 

civilization, ^f q^^j^ jj^ mentions that the Brythons grew large 
quantities of corn, but he names other tribes who sowed no corn, 
lived only upon flesh and milk, and were clothed in skins. In- 
deed, the word Brython, which means clothed, was used by that 
race to distinguish themselves from their more backward neighbours. 
The religion of the Brythons was the same as that of the Gauls 
and other Aryan races of the Continent, and consisted in a worship 
of many gods and of the powers of nature ; but the Goidels had 
partly adopted from the Ivernians the religion of Druidism, and 
the Ivernians were wholly under its influence. Druidism as 
practised by the Ivernians was a most barbarous religion, but 
among the Goidels the Druids seem to have been a kind of sooth- 
sayer^ or magicians. In government the Brythons were in advance 
of their neighbours. Among them the great men of the tribe had 
much influence ; but among the Goidels the kings appear to have 
had absolute power over their subjects. The Brythons had a 
system of coinage imitated from the merchants of the continent, 
and many of their coins have been found and preserved. All the 
three races were great warriors, and much fighting went on, not 
only among the races themselves, but among different tribes of the 
same race. Of these wars we have many remains in the shape of 
huge earthworks and camps. The people of the south-east were 
in Csesar's time remarkable for the skill with which they managed 
their war-chariots. They were armed with swords, spears, bows 
and arrows, while they protected themselves with shields, and 
wore armour on their throats and right arms. Their weapons 
were made of bronze, for iron was as yet little used. Even the 
Brythons still tattooed themselves and painted their bodies for battle, 
and it is certain that the Goidels and Ivernians of the west and 
north were much ruder than those tribes with whom Csesar was 
acquainted. 

From 54 B.C. to a.d. 43 the Britons were unmolested by the 
Bomans ; but in that year Aulus Plautius, the general of the 



A.D. 81.] Roman Conquest of Britain. g- 

Emperor Claudius, invaded the country, and, after a great deal 
of very severe fiffhtin^, the Eomans succeeded in 

.,'.., Conquest of 

storming the prmcipal British camps, and made Britain by tiie 
themselves masters of the country. The chief battles omans. 

were the storming of Camulodunum, the capital of the Trino- 
bantes, where Colchester now stands, and that against the SUures 
of South Wales, led by Caractacus, which was fought near the river 
Severn. From 47 to 78 the Romans were continually fighting 
against the British tribes, one of whose leaders was the celebrated 
Boadicea ; but in 69 there arrived in Britain a Roman general and 
statesman named Julius Agricola, who completed the conquest of all 
that part of the island which was afterwards held by the Romans. 
Agricola was the father-in-law of the Roman historian Tacitus, 
from whose pen we get the best account of the conquest. His 
greatest triumph was the battle of Mons Graupius, won near the 
Tay. By the close of the year 81, Agricola had thoroughly 
subdued the country, and he had also set about the task of putting 
the Roman rule on a permanent footing. 

Agricola decided not to attempt to hold the country which lay 
north of the Firths of Clyde and Forth. He therefore built across 
the narrow piece of land which unites the low- _ 

^ . Roman settle- 

lands and highlands of Scotland a series of fortified mentofthe 
posts, which are sometimes called Agricola's Wall. country. 
The Romans then organized Britain according to their usual 
plan. They chose a number of places which were Towns and 
important either for military purposes or because camps, 
they were useful for trade. At some they established permanent 
stations, at others colonies of settlers. They connected these by a 
network of roads, which enabled them to get their soldiers together 
to any place where they were wanted, and also gave great assist- 
ance to trade. The chief Roman towns were London, Colchester, 
Lincoln, York, Bath, Caerleon-upon-Usk, Uriconium, and Chester. 
The chief Roman roads connected these towns, but branches were 
made in every direction to places of smaller importance, and till the 
introduction of railways it may be said that the chief traffic of the 
country followed the Roman roads. The best-known Roman roads 
are the Watling Street, which ran from Dover by way of London 
to Chester ; and the Fosseway, which ran from Cornwall to Lincoln, 



lo Britain under the Romans. [8i- 

crossing the Watling Street near Eugby. Moreover, the Roman 
towns are still the sites of the greater part of our old English cities, 
and wherever we find the ending " Chester," " cester," or " caster," 
we have evidence of a Roman camp. Manchester is Roman, while 
the names of Liverpool and Birmingham serve to show that great 
cities have sprung up on those sites for reasons which were not in 
action in Roman times. 

Besides building towns and making roads, the Romans also 

taught the Britons civilization. As everywhere else in their 

Roman dominions, they introduced the Roman law, Roman 

Civilization, games, and, after they had been converted, Chris- 
tianity. It was Roman enterprise which felled forests, reclaimed fens, 
and. improved the soil, till Britain became the greatest corn-growing 
country of the west. Iron, lead, and tin mines were worked, pot- 
tery and bricks were manufactured. Beautiful villas, with every 
luxury of Roman life, were built along the roads and in the neigh- 
bourhood of large towns, and though large parts of the island were 
still barbarous, the country as a whole was fairly orderly and 
civilized. 

The civilized lands which were under the Romans were always 
looked upon with greedy eyes by the barbarous tribes who lived 
Defences of tiie across the frontier, and even at their strongest the 
Roman empire, j^omans had to maintain great garrisons of soldiers 
along the border in order to keep out the barbarians. These 
soldiers, some of whom were Romans and some hired, like our 
Indian Sepoys, from the inhabitants of the country, lived in camps 
along the frontier. Some of these camps can be traced at the 
present day in the great towns that lie on the Roman side of the 
Danube or the Rhine. In Britain we saw that Agricola established 
the frontier line between the Firths of Clyde and Forth ; but in 121 
the Emperor Hadrian decided to give up a large tract of barren 

The Roman country, and made a line between the mouths of the 
wau. Tyne and the Eden his frontier. This line was forti- 

fied at various times, till its defences were composed of a rampart 
to the north, an earthwork to the south, and a series of fortified 
stations for the garrison between the two, so that the soldiers were pre- 
pared for an attack from the north or for a rising in the south. The 
whole of these fortifications are generally known as the Roman wall. 



410.] Roman Civilization. ii 

For a long time the Romans were strong enough to defend the 
frontier of their whole empire ; but by degrees they became weak, 
and then the Teutons and Celts who were over the 

11- -IT. . End of the 

border made their way mto the Roman territories. Roman rule in 
When this happened, the Romans were obliged to give ^^ ^"^" 

up trying to defend the outlying parts of their dominions ; and in 
the year 410, after withdrawing their legions from Britain, they 
released the Britons from their allegiance. 

At that time there were in Britain three classes of inhabitants : 
(1) The Romanized Britons, who had been taught and defended 
by the Romans. These occupied the fertile districts state of Britain 
and river valleys. (2) Those Britons who, though °tur^\f^tiiT' 
subject to the Romans, had still kept their own Romans, 
language and customs, and who lived in Wales and the mountainous 
parts of the island. (3) The unconquered Britons who lived 
north of the Roman wall. ' They are generally called the Picts and 
Scots. The name Pict, or painted, was given by the Romans to all 
the tribes who lived across the frontier, and included Brythons, 
Goidels, and Ivernians alike. The name Scot, which also means 
painted or tattooed, was the name given to the Groidels from Ireland, 
who had begun to attack the north-west coast of Britam before the 
Romans left. 



CHAPTER n. 

THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN BRITAIN. 

WiiEN the Roman soldiers were gone, the Romanized Britons did 
their best to maintain their independence ; but they were unac- 
customed to fighting, and had much ado to repel their countrymen 
from the hills, and the Picts and Scots from beyond the wall. 

These, however, were not their only enemies, for they were soon 

attacked by the English ; and in the course of two hundred years 

The Eng-iisii ^^c new-comers wrested from the Romanized Britons 

invasion. ^11 the fertile parts of the island. Only one writer, 
Gildas, was living when the conquest was taking place, and he tells 
us very little, so that we are obliged to rely upon historians who 
lived long after the events which they profess to relate. By them 
we are told that the Britons called in the English to help them against 
the Picts and Scots, that the English turned upon their employers, 
and, assisted by thousands of their countrymen, conquered large dis- 
tricts in Britain. The dates of these conquests are given. The 
kingdom of Kent is said to have been founded in 449, Sussex in 
477, Wessex in 495, and Northumbria in 547. As a matter of fact, 
however, it is impossible to give any detailed account of the con- 
quest. These writers tell us mainly about the south coast ; they 
give hardly anything about Northumbria, and nothing at all about 
the conquest of the great midland kingdom of Mercia. 

The researches of modern historians have, however, done much 

to clear up the matter, and the main features of the invasions are 

Facts of the ^ow well known. The English, under which name 

invasion. q^q included three tribes, the Angles, Saxons, and 
Jutes, were a Low German race who lived in the neighbourhood 
of the mouth of the Elbe. They were much given to plunder 



410.] The English Conquest. 13 

and piracy, and in Eoman times were known, under the name of 
Saxons, as the scom^ge of the North Sea and the British Channel. 
When Britain was left defenceless, they required no invitation to 
land and attack the inhabitants. Wherever there was a convenient 
port, thither they steered their ships, and, if they could master the 
inhabitants, began a settlement, just as their descendants did hundreds 
of years afterwards on the coast of North America. 

These settlements were dotted aU along the British coast from 
the Firth of Forth to the Southampton Water, and each became 
a little kingdom. Between the mouths of the Firth rpj^e English 
and Tyne we find the Bernicians ; between the Tyne settlements, 
and the Humber the Deirans; then the Lindiswaras between the 
Humber and the Wash ; then the East Anglians between the Wash 
and Harwich ; and the East Saxons, who were bounded on the south 
by the Thames. Crossing that river, we come in turn to the Kentish- 
men, the South Saxons, a small group of Jutes near Southampton 
Water, and finally to the land of the West Saxons, or Wessex. 

These tribes spread inland, and conquered the country from the 
Britons, but how far they killed oflf the old inhabitants, drove them 
away, or reduced them to slavery, it is not easy to Method of the 
say. It is certain, however, that at first, when the conauest. 
Enghsh were heathen, they simply pushed aside or slaughtered the 
Britons and took their place ; but it is thought that, as they pene- 
trated further into the country, few Britons survived where the 
fighting was severe, but many where large tracts were conquered by 
a single battle. The Britons who survived would be those in the 
large towns, and the agricultural labourers, who would naturally be 
preserved as hewers of wood and drawers of water, and for the 
purpose of cultivating the fields, which they could do much better 
than their English conquerors. Two things make it very hard to 
tell how many Britons survived. First, the Britons Evidence of 
who came under the rule of the EngHsh completely reugfont and 
gave up their own language and adopted that of their names, 
conquerors, just as the Gauls, when conquered by Caesar, learned to 
speak Latin. Secondly, in the eastern parts of the island we have 
no traces of Christianity, though it survived in tne west and in 
Wales. If we examine the names of places, we shall find that, 
with the exception of Roman names of towns and British names 



14 The English Settlement in Britain. [4io- 

of rivers, we have hardly a single British or Eoman name in the 
low-lying districts of the east and south ; while directly we come 
to hilly country, British names are again found, such as Pen-y- 
ghent and Helvellyn. The language spoken in all low-lying dis- 
tricts is English, but we know that it is not long since Celtic was 
spoken in Cornwall, that it is still spoken in Wales, and large traces 
of Celtic can be found in the dialects of hilly districts. 

The chief part of the conquest took place between the years 410 
and 600, by which date the English had made themselves masters 
CMef battles of ^^ ^ ^^ fertile country in the south and east, and 
the conctuest. the Britons only held possession of the mountainous 
and barren tracts of the west and north. They did not do this 
without hard fighting, and the struggle had the effect of uniting the 
Goidels and Brythons south of the wall, who began to call them- 
selves by the name of Kymry, or comrades. Two battles, however, 
stand out plainly, and must be remembered. In the year 577 the 
West Saxons defeated the Britons at the battle of Deorham, near 
Bath. The result of this victory was to separate the Britons of 
Cornwall from those of Wales. In the year 607, or 613, the Anglians 
of Northumbria defeated the Britons at the battle of Chester, and 
so cut off the Britons of Wales from those of Strath clyde, the hilly 
district which stretches from Morecambe Bay to the Firth of Clyde. 
The English, after this, began to call the men of Cornwall West 
Welsh, and those who Hved between the Bristol Channel and the 
Dee, North Welsh. The word Welsh means foreigner. 

The early settlements of the English seem to have been quite 
independent of one another ; but no sooner had they gained a firm 
Early Eng-iish footing, than the stronger kmgdoms began to attack 

kingdoms. ai^(j conquer the weaker. In this way Bernicia and 
Deira became united into Northumbria, with York as capital ; Norfolk 
and Suffolk into East Anglia ; the midland settlements from the fens 
to the Welsh border, and from the Humber to Watling Street, 
formed the kingdom of Mercia ; while aU the shires that lay between 
Watling Street and the south coast, except Kent and Sussex, fell 
under the power of the kings of Wessex, whose capital was 
Winchester. The period when Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, 
Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Wessex were the principal kingdoms is 
sometimes known as that of the seven kingdoms, or the Heptarchy. 



597.1 Conversion of the English. 15 

111 such a small country as England one or other of these 
kingdoms was sure to get the mastery over the others, but it was 
a good many years before all the land came under one king. 

Long before this happened England was won back to Christianity. 
The English were heathens. They worshipped the powers of 
nature, such as Thor, the god of thunder : but they „ 

' ' ° T J Conversion of 

had a special reverence for Woden, the leader of the the English to 
German race, whom the chiefs looked upon as their ^^ ^^^ ^' 

ancestor. They had many superstitions, but apparently no very 
strong religious beliefs. Such a people were sure to take kindly to 
Christianity, if it were presented to them in an attractive form. 

"While the English had been conquering Eoman _ . . 
Britain, other Teutonic races had been making them- tiements in 
selves masters of portions of the Roman empire, o^^n empire. 
The great difference between the English settlement in Britain, 
and the conquests of the Goths and the Franks, was this. The 
English kept their own religion and language, and . 
exterminated Christianity and the Celtic and Roman sion to ciiris- 
speeches ; while the Goths and Franks did all they ^^^ ^' 
could to become Roman : they learnt to speak the Latin tongue, 
they followed Roman customs, and adopted Christianity. While 
this was going on, the power of the Bishop of Rome, afterwards called 
the pope, was growing fast. His ecclesiastical dominions coincide 
with the old boundaries of the Roman empire in the west. England, 
however, was still heathen, while the Christians of Wales, Strath- 
clyde, and Ireland were cut off from his rule ; so it was natural that 
he should wish to convert the English. 

So little had been heard about Britain in the Roman empire, 
since it had been abandoned in 410, that one writer tells us that 
Britain was the abode of the souls of the dead, who Gregory's 
were ferried across the Channel from the shores of mission. 
France ; and it is said that Gregory the Great, the pope who had 
tlie honour of sending the first missionaries to the English, was 
only reminded of its actual existence by noticing some Northum- 
brian captives exposed for sale in the slave-market at Rome. How- 
ever this may be, Gregory determined on their conversion ; and as 
he could not go himself, he sent Augustine, a monk, with a number 
of clergy, to England. 



1 6 The Endish Settlernent in Britain. [597- 



"ii 



The time was favourable to his plan. Ethelbert, the King of the 
Kentishmen, had married the daughter of the King of Paris, Kent, 
Conversion of Owing to having been settled more than one hundred 
Kent. years, was a well-organized kingdom, and its civiliza- 

tion had been improved by trade with the Continent. Encouraged 
by these circumstances, Augustine and his clergy paid a visit to the 
royal court at Canterbury. There they were graciously received 
by Ethelbert, who himself accepted Christianity, and gave his people 
leave to do the same. The Kentishmen adopted the new faith. 
Augustine was ordained Archbishop of the English Church ; churches 
were built on new sites, or on the ruins of the old British churches, 
and two missionary bishops were consecrated for Essex and West 
Kent, whose sees were to be respectively London and Eochester. 
So the south-eastern corner of England was again restored to Chris- 
tendom in the year 597. Augustine also tried to get the Welsh 
Christians to acknowledge his authority, but failed. 

No other English kingdom received Christianity for thirty years ; 
but after the death of Augustine, when Justus was Archbishop of 
Conversion of Canterbury, advantage was taken of the marriage 
Nortbumbria. of Ethelburga, daughter of Ethelbert, with Edwin, 
King of Northumbria, to send with her a missionary, Paulhnus. 
By his preaching Edwin and his nobles were converted and 
baptized. Paullinus also converted Lincolnshire, then called 
Lindsey. Mercia, Wessex, Sussex, and all the smaller kingdoms, 
were as yet pagan. 

While these events were in progress, the struggle between the 
kingdoms for the supremacy was still going on. Kent took the lead, 
struggle for Under Ethelbert the Christian ; but its power was 
supremacy, yg-^-y short-lived, and the earliest king to get any- 
thing like a real supremacy was Edwin, King of Northumberland. 
This northern kingdom was very strong. It was not so civilized 
as Kent, but it was much larger. It first came to the front 
when its king, Ethelfrith, defeated the Welsh in the battle of 
Chester; but Edwin, when he had beaten the West Saxons, was 
stronger still, and possibly his marriage with Ethelburga was a 
sign of his superiority over Kent. The great rival of Northumbria 
was Mercia. Penda, its heathen king, allied with the Christian 
Welsh, and overthrew and slew Edwin at the battle of Hatfield, 



664.1 Conversion of England. 17 

near Doncaster, in 633. This defeat threw Northumbria into con- 
fusion, and its Christianity perished ; but in a short time Oswald, 
Ethelfrith's son, became King of Northumbria, and united all 
Edwin's dominions under his rule. 

Hitherto we have heard only of Roman missionaries to the 
English, but we now hear of Celtic clergy as well. After Christianity 
had been destroyed by the English in the east of the _ 

.,, „ . Preaching of 

island, it still nourished among the Celts and made the Celtic miS' 
fresh converts. St. David, a member of the ruhng sionanes. 
family among the Brythons of Mid- Wales, converted the Goidels 
of the south, while St. Patrick preached to the Goidels of Ireland. 
About the year 500, a body of Scots from Ireland established a 
new kingdom in Argyle (the Gael land), which they took from the 
Ivernians. From this kingdom Christianity spread among the 
Goidels of Scotland, and their missionaries preached to the Ivernians 
of the north. Among the Celtic Christians monasteries were 
numerous, and at one of these, situated on lona, an island off the 
west coast of Scotland, Oswald took refuge, when driven from 
Northumbria by Penda, and on his return he sent for mis- 
sionaries from lona. St. Aidan was sent to him, and founded 
the monastery of Lindisfarne off the coast of Northumbria, and 
thence he made missionary journeys among the Northumbrians. 
His arrival took place in 634. Oswald, however, was defeated and 
slain by Penda in the battle of Maserfield, near Oswestry, in 
Shropshire in 642 ; but his successor, Oswy, also a Christian, 
surprised and defeated Penda at the battle of Wmwidfield^ 
in 655. 

After tliis success the Celtic missionaries pushed on in all 
directions. Chad converted Mercia, and fixed the bishop's seat 
at Lichfield. While the north was being won by Further 
the Celts, southern England was won by Roman conversions, 
preachers. Birinus, an Italian, converted the West Saxons ; Fehx, 
a Burgundian, drove paganism from East Anglia. Sussex for some 
time longer remained heathen. Thus Mercia and Northumbria 
were alhed in faith with the Welsh; the rest of England was 
allied in the faith with the nations of the Continent. 

There were slight differences between the two faiths. The 
* Site unknown, 

h 



iS The Endish Settlement in Britain, [664- 



'^j 



Welsh had a different way of cutting the tonsure, or shaving part 

Rivalry be- ^^ their priests' heads, and they kept Easter on a dif- 

tween ttie ferent day from that on which it was celebrated by the 

Celtic and ^ 

Roman forms Church of Rome. These do not seem great matters 
of Christianity, j^ themselves, but they really involved a great deal. 
If England adopted the Celtic method, she would cut herself off 
from the great body of Christendom, and this isolation would 
prevent her from sharing in all the treasures of culture, learning, 
and civilization which had been left by the Romans, and were 
now being preserved by the Roman clergy. If, on the other 
hand, she adopted the Roman practice, she would keep all these 
advantages, and secure for herself a share in any advances which 
were made by Christendom at large. 

The question was settled at the Synod of Whitby, 664. It was 
dealt with in a very practical way. The Northumbrian king asked 

Synod of Colman, the representative of the Welsh, whether he 

VThitby. admitted that the pope was the successor of St. Peter. 
On his answering '' Yes," the king then asked if he admitted that 
St. Peter held the keys of heaven. "Yes," was the answer. 
" Then," said the king, " I will never offend the Saint who is the 
doorkeeper of heaven." England in this way threw in her lot with 
the Church of Rome ; but the Celts of Ireland and Wales remained 
apart for many years afterwards. 

Four years afterwards the English Church was thoroughly set 
in order by Theodore, a native of Tarsus, in Cilicia, who was sent 
Organization of ^^ *^^ P^P® "^^ be Arclibishop of Canterbury. He 
the churcii by organized the English Church under the two arch- 
eo ore. bishoprics of Canterbury and York, and this accept- 
ance by the English of one form of Christianity was a step in the 
direction of their union as one nation. 

Since the battle of Chester, Northumbria, in spite of some reverses 
of fortune, had kept its position as the leading kingdom. It had 
Nortbumbrian', ^^^^ famous, not only for arms, but also for learning. 

supremacy. Durmg its Supremacy lived the venerable Bede, 
who wrote a history of the English Church, which is the earliest 
history of our race written by an Englishman ; Cuthbert, Bishop 
of Lindisfarne, a saintly and a learned man ; and Caedmon the poet, 
who wrote a paraphrase of part of the Bible. In the year 685, 



62?.] Supremacy of Mercia. ig 

iigfrith, King of Nortllumbria, was defeated and killed by the Picts 
in the disastrous battle of Nectan's Mere, near the Tay, and with 
him ended the supremacy of Northumbria. 

Mercia then came to the front. This great kingdom, wliich 
originally included all the lands of middle England, was increased 
by the capture of the West Saxon settlements in supremacy of 
the Severn Valley. The most celebrated of the Mercia. 
Mercian kings are Penda, Wulfhere, Ethelbald, and Oflfa; and of 
these Oifa was by far the greatest. He ruled his 
own kmgdom with a strong hand, and set up kings 
whom he could trust in the smaller kingdoms. As Kent had 
the Archbishopric of Canterbury, and Northumbria that of York, 
Offa determined to have an archbishop at his capital too, and for a 
short time Lichfield was raised to the dignity of an archiepiscopal 
see. OfFa made war on the Welsh, and took from them 
Shrewsbury and its district of Powysland. To protect these 
conquests, he made an earthwork from Chester to Chepstow, which 
is still called Offa's Dyke. In his time, Mercia, Northumbria, and 
Wessex completely overshadowed the smaller kingdoms, which had 
lost all prospect of gaining the supremacy. 

The power of Mercia depended upon the strength of its king, 
and when Oifa died, the struggle for supremacy began again. 
His death happened in 796, and in the year 802 Rise of Wessex. 
Egbert, who had lived in exile at the court of Egbert. 
Charles the Great in Germany, was made King of Wessex. 
Egbert was bent on making Wessex the leading kingdom. His 
aim naturally brought about war with Mercia, and in 825, at the 
battle of Ellandun,! the Mercians were defeated with great slaughter. 
At once the smaller kingdoms, which had been under the sway of 
Mercia, passed under the rule of Wessex. In 826 Kent, Sussex, 
Essex, and East Anglia submitted. The next, 827, Mercia was 
conquered, and the Northumbrians received Egbert as their over- 
lords Egbert was now king over his oWn kingdom of Wessex, 
and overlord of the whole English-speaking race from the Channel 
to the Firth of Forth. 

1 Site unknown. 



(mAPTER Til. 

GOVEENMENT OF THE ENGLISH. 

We have brought the English to England, seen them converted to 
Christianity, and united under one king ; we must now inquire how 
they were governed. 

We saw that in all probability the English kingdoms were 
formed gradually by the union of a number of small settlements, 
Ho th En - J^^^ ^^ ^^^^ kingdom of England was formed, in 

lisiiwere its turn, by the union of the smaller kingdoms 
themselves. 

The larger kingdoms, such as Wessex and Mercia, were divided into 

shires ; the smaller, such as Essex and Sussex, also became shires 

after they lost their own kings and were made part of one of the 

larger kingdoms. Each shire was divided into smaller districts 

called hundreds, which were larger or smaller in different parts of 

England. Each hundred contained a number of townships. The 

officer of the township was the town-reeve. He called 
The reeve. ^^ .^ , . . , 

the grown men oi the township to meet m the 

town-moot ; there they settled matters which concerned the town- 
ship. If the town was defended by a mound, it was called a 
burgh, a borough, or bury, which are only different ways of spell- 
ing the same word, which means defence. The head officer of a 
borough was called a borough-reeve. If the town was a place of 
trade he was often called a port-reeve (gate-reeve). The men of 
the township had to keep in repair the bridges and fortifications 
which the township contained, and, if need were, they had to fight. 
The hundred- The hundred was presided over by the hundred-man, 
man. ^^ hundred-elder. Its meeting was the hundred- 

moot, and this dealt with the business of the hundred. The head 



827.] Divisions of the Country. 21 

of the shire was the ealdorman, elderman, or alderman, who was 
placed over it by the king and wise men of the iheeaidor- 
whole kingdom. Beside him, in Christian times, was '^*^- 

the bishop ; and the king was represented by the ^^® bishop, 
shire-reeve, or, as we now call him, sheriff. The The sheriff, 
meeting of the men of the shire was called the shire-moot. There 
they settled all quarrels. If a man was accused of The shire- 
theft or murder, he had to get his relations to swear moot, 
that he was innocent. If they did not do this, he was put to the 
ordeal ; i.e. he had to plunge his hand into boiling water, carry a 
bar of red-hot iron, or walk over red-hot ploughshares, and if he 
was not healed in the course of a fixed time, he was held guilty 
and punished. Punishment usually consisted of a fine paid to the 
sufferers, or to the family of the slaughtered man, and an extra 
fine was paid to the king. 

When war was to be made, or the country was invaded, word was 
sent to the ealdormen, each of whom sent notice to the hundred-men 
of his shire to meet at an appointed place. Each The army of 

hundred-man called on the town-reeves of his hun- *^® shire, com- 
monly caUed 
dred. They assembled the men of each township. theFyrd. 

Every man between sixteen and sixty had to come ; they ranged 

themselves in families, and marched, under the command of the 

reeve and the parish priest, to the meeting-place of the hundred. 

There they met the men of other townships, and, forming one 

body, they marched under the hundred-man to the meeting-place 

of the shire, where the whole force of the shire was united under 

the lead of the ealdorman and the bishop ; and then marched 

against the enemy, or joined the men of other shires, as the case 

might be. The whole force collected in this way was called the 

Pyrd. In this way the shire managed its own -affairs, its own 

justice, and was able to fight its own battles. 

A group of shires made the kingdom. This was governed by 

the king and his witena-gemot, which means " meeting of the wise 

men." Every man could not come to the witena- „ . 

'' 11. 11 The kingdom 

gemot. It was made up of the kmg and the mem- andwitena- 

bers of his family, the ealdormen, the archbishops eemo . 

and bishops, and the king's thegns. The king's thegns were 

originally the king's servants. The bishops and ealdormen also 



2 2 Government of the English. [8S7. 

had tliegns. But, among the English, it was thought an honour to 
be the servant of a great man, so the king's thegns were really 
nobles. Even in the large kingdoms the witena-gemot was quite a 
small body ; but it is very important, because the Parliament of our 
own day is the representative of the old witena-gemot, as we shall 
see by-and-by. 

The witena-gemot elected the king; but it very rarely chose 
a man who was not a member of the royal family. The late 
The powers of ^^^s'^ eldest SOU was usually chosen, but if he was 
the witena- young, foolish, or very wicked, they preferred the late 
king's brother. If the king turned out badly, they 
often deposed him, and set up another in his stead. Besides this, 
the archbishops, bishops, and ealdormen were named by the 
king in the witena-gemot. Questions of peace and war were discussed 
by the wise men ; they settled disputes among the great men. In 
fact, they helped the king to govern. 

The Idng, on the other hand, had great power. As the sup- 
posed descendant of Woden, he was looked upon with awe. His 
Powers of the f^-i^ily were royal. The whole kingdom looked up 
king-. to him as its representative. In war he led the 

army. The nobles were the king's thegns. He had palaces and 
estates. The power of the king varied with the size of his king- 
dom, for the King of Northumbria was naturally a much greater 
man than the King of Sussex, and as England became more and 
more united, the power of the kings steadily grew. 

In each English shire there was a quantity of land which belonged 

to the settlement, but had not been given to any one man. This 

was called folkland. The king and the wise men 

Tlie folkland. . 

used to make grants of this land, and the pieces thus 

granted were called bocland, because they were given to their 

owners by book or title-deed. By-and-by the kings began to give 

out this land without consulting the wise men, and this helped them 

to increase their power, because men looked to them for reward. 

Thus we see that each shire was strong and well organized ; but 

. the kingdoms were weak, because the shires, many 

kingdom of w^liich had been originally hostile settlements, had 

little sympathy with each other. This made it very 

hard to make England into a strong kingdom. 



CHAPTER IV. 

rNYASIONS OF THE NORTHMEN". 

Wb saw that Egbert, like Offa and Edwin, had in 827 made 

himself leading king, and had even succeeded in getting his 

supremacy acknowledged by the whole English-speak- 

ing race. It is probable, however, that his kingdom 

would have broken up like those of his predecessors had it not been 

for the attacks of the Northmen. 

We shaU see how this was. The Danes, or Northmen, were 
Aryans like the English, but belonged to the Scandinavian branch 
of the Teutonic race. They lived in what are 

. . The Xortlinieu. 

now called Norway, Sweden, and Denmark ; but m 
the eighth century they were not united into nations, but lived in 
small tribes, just as the English had done before their settlement 
in Britain. These Northmen, as the English had been, were 
pirates, and they also were on the look-out for fertile lands in which 
they might settle. They were barbarian and heathen, as the 
English had been before Augustine's time. Their language was 
very hke English. From the year 787 in the time of OfFa till 
the time of William the Conqueror, the English were constantly 
fighting with the Northmen. The invasions of the Northmen may 
be divided under three heads. First, they came to plunder- 
second, to settle ; and third, to conquer and rule England. 

The invasions of the Danes began in the year 787. A number 
of their ships would sail up one of the navigable rivers, such as the 
Trent or the Yorkshire Ouse, as far as they could. _. ^ 

' "^ First period 

Then they brought their ships to land, and left them of nortiieni 

ander a guard, while the main body harried the 

country, and, in case they were attacked, retreated to their ships. 



24 Invasions of the Northmen. [787- 

If they found the people of one district prepared, they sailed away to 
some other district and attacked that. The English had given up 
being sailors, and could do very little against these pirates ; so from 
787 to 855 we continually hear of these plundering expeditions 
of the Northmen, who sacked the country, and burnt the monas- 
teries, where goods were naturally sent for safety. Sometimes 
the Northmen aUied with the Welsh, and in 836 Egbert won a great 
battle over an allied army of Northmen and Welsh, at Hengist's 
Down, on the Cornish side of the Tamar. 

In 839 Egbert died, and was succeeded by his son Ethelwulf. In 
his days the Northmen, in 855, for the first time wintered in the 

Ethelwulf, Isle of Sheppey. This begins a new period in the 

839-858. Danish im^asions, for they now tried to settle in 
tlie country. 

Ethelwulf died in 858, and was succeeded in turn by his sons 
Ethelbald, Ethelbert, Ethelred, and Alfred. In their days the 
Second period Northmen continued their invasions. For the most 

of Northern p^^^ ^|^g attacked Northumbria, Mercia, and East 

invasion. i. J 75 

Ethelbald, Anglia, and, so long as they confined themselves to the 
andmheiredi. under-kingdoms, they did not meet with very serious 
858—871. resistance ; but in the year 871, when Ethelred was 
king, the heathen men, as the chroniclers call them, passed into 
Wessex. There they met with a strenuous resistance. In that 
year, 871, six great battles were fought. Of these the best-known 
is Ashdown, near Keading, in which the English were victorious ; 
but in four out of the six the Northmen had the better, and after 
the battle of Wilton, which the Northmen won, the English were 
glad to make terms. 

During the fighting Ethelred died, and was succeeded by his 

younger brother Alfred, the last of the sons of Ethelwulf. 

For the next seven years Alfred had much ado to 

A.lfred. 

defend Wessex from the Northmen, and meanwhile 
they swept over the under-kingdoms, and in 876 and 877 they 
divided Northumbria and Mercia among themselves. In the year 
878 another gi'eat army of Northmen, under Guthrum, attacked 
Alfred, and forced him to retreat to the Isle of Athelney, among 
the marshes of the Parret in Somersetshire. There he was safe 
from pursuit; and the next year, 878, he issued from his retreat, 



879.] King Alfred. 25 

and surprised and defeated the Danes at the great battle of 
Ethandun, now called Edington. This victory drove the Northmen 
from Wessex, and the next year a treaty was made at Chippen- 
ham (sometimes called the treaty of Wedmore), and Guthrum 
became a Christian in 879. 

By this treaty it was agreed that the boundary of Alfred's king- 
dom on the north should run along the estuary of the river Tliames, 
then along the river Lea to its source, then to Treaty of cMp- 
Bedford, then by the river Ouse till it crosses Watling peniiam. 
Street, and along Watling Street to the Welsh border. This will be 
clearer if we may say, roughly, that all England which lies to the 
south of the London and North- Western Eailway from London to 
Chester belonged to Alfred, the rest to the Northmen. Immediately 
after this treaty was made, the Northmen secured East Anglia and 
portioned it out, as they had done Mercia and Northumbria. 

It is not easy for us to realize what this settlement of the North- 
men was like. We do not know for certain what proportion they 
bore to the English populations among whom they The settlement 

settled. Traces of them can be noted in three ways, of ti^e North- 
men. 

Wherever we find names ending in " by," "thorpe," Traces of the 
or " thwaite," as Grimsby, Grimsthorpe, and Nib- Northmen, 
thwaite, there we know that there was either a new settlement of 
Northmen, or that an old township was allotted to some Northern 
leader. In the northern dialect, again, we find a very large 
number of Norse words and modes of speech. It is also known 
that for a long time the laws and customs of the district settled by 
the Northmen were somewhat different from those in the rest of 
the island; hence the district north of Watling Street was often 
called the Dane-law. The Northmen soon became Christians, and 
mingled with the English among whom they lived, but for a long 
time they were independent of the West Saxon kings. 

The effect of the settlement of the Northmen on the West Saxon 
kingdom was twofold. First, it cut off from it the under-kingdoms 
which lay beyond Watling Street ; secondly, it gave ^„ 

•^ *' ^ \ ./ ' o Effects of the 

the West Saxons, as part of their own kingdom, settlement of 
that part of Mercia which lay between Watling Street "' 

and the Thames. Thus it reduced the size of their dominions, but 
to some extent made them stronger in reality than heretofore. 



2 6 Invasions of the Northmen. t®45- 

Alfred was one of tliose great men who thoroughly understand 

what they can and what they cannot do, and it is one of the strong 

points in his character that he saw clearly that his 

business was not to waste his strength in trying to 

reconquer the Danes, but to make his own dominions as strong as 

possible. 

The first thing to be done was to prevent new incursions of Danes, 
so he organized a fleet which protected the coasts. He then put the 
Formation of a English fyrd, or militia, into order, so as to defend his 
fleet. kingdom by land. To secure order and good govern- 

code of laws, jj^gj-^^^ Alfred and his wise men drew up a revised code 
of laws, and saw that the law courts did their duty. To improve 
the culture of his people, Alfred invited learned men from abroad, 
superintended their work, and himself helped to translate from 
Latin into English books of philosophy, travel, and history, for the 
improvement of his people. In his days the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 
was compiled from old traditions, and from his time a narrative of 
the events of each year was kept in various monasteries and added to 
the chronicle, so that since Alfred began to reign we have a history 
of English events written by men who were living at the time. 

All through his reign Alfred had often to fight hard against new 

bands of Northmen, but he was usually successful, and in his time 

Fresii incur- the Northmen turned their attention to Normandy. 

sions. rjij^Q descendants of these settlers were the Normans, 

Normandy, of whom WO shall hear much more hereafter. The 

first settlement of the Northmen in France was made in 876, and 

Hrolf, or RoUo, became Duke of Normandy in 912. 

Alfred died 901, and was succeeded by his son Edward, commonly 

called Edward the Elder. On the election of Edward a difficulty 

Edward the ^^osc, for the crown was claimed by Ethelwald, son 

Elder. of Ethelrcd I., who had been passed over as a boy 

in favour of Alfred. Edward the Elder was supported by the nation, 

and Ethelwald took refuge with the Northmen of Northumbria. 

Edward the Elder is noted as a warrior. He determined to 
reconquer the Dane-law, and was helped by his warlike sister Ethel- 
Edward's plan fieda,themdowoftheEaldormanofMercia. Edward's 
for reconquer- ^^^ ^^^g ^]^^-g^ jj^ ^^^ ^ fortress-buildcr, and when 
mg tne Dane- ^ ' 

law. he had taken a piece of territory he fortified some 



991-] Conquest of the Dane-law, 27 

strong place in it, and then used that as a base of operations against 
the enemy. His sister adopted the same plan. 

The chief strength of the Danes lay in two districts. First the 
midlands, where they were strong in Leicester, 

T J ^ ' The five 

Lincoln, Nottingham, Stamford on the Welland, and boroughs of 
Derby, which were called the five Danish boroughs ; 
and, secondly, in a group of small towns which lay north of London, 
of which Hertford and Bedford are the best known. 

In 907 Ethelfleda fortified Chester, and in 912 Edward retook 
London, which had been captured by the Danes, and the brother 
and sister then set about a regular attack on the Danish conquest of the 
towns. Stafford, Derby, and Leicester fell to Ethel- i>ane-iaw. 
fleda; Hertford, Bedford, and Stamford to Edward. In 918 Ethelfleda 
died, and Mercia, south of Watling Street, was completely united to 
Wessex, and newly divided into shires which were called after the 
names of the chief town in each, as Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire, 
and Warwickshire. Edward then pressed hard upon the Danes. In 
921 Essex and East Anglia, and in 922 Nottingham, Lincoln, with 
the remainder of the district held by the five boroughs, submitted 
to him. Edward then advanced into Northumbria and fortified 
Manchester. 

The result of these conquests was to make Edward's name a terror 
to the Northmen, and to win him the character of a Adoption of 
protector among the English and Welsh. In conse- Edward as 

ovsrlord. by 

quence, in 922 the North Welsh asked Edward to be the Eng-iish 
their lord, and in 924 the Northumbrians, Scots, and ^^^ Celts. 
Strathclyde Welsh chose him for father and lord. 

This submission made Edward far more powerful than any former 
English king. He was now actual ruler of all England Edward's 
as far as the Humber, and overlord of the North- position, 
umbrians, Welsh, and Scots. 

Edward died in 925, and was succeeded by his son Athelstan. In 
his reign the subject kingdoms made a great effort to throAV off the 
English yoke. To help them they called in the aid of 
those Northmen who had settled in Ireland ; but they 
were defeated by Athelstan in the decisive battle of Brunanburh,^ 
937, which completely secured the English supremacy. 

^ Site unknown. 



28 Invasions of the Northmen* 1945- 

Athelstan was succeeded by his half-brother Edmund in 945. 
He conquered Strathclyde, which by his time comprised only the 
land which lay between the river Derwent in Cum- 
berland and the Firth of Clyde, and was bounded 
inland by the Pennine range of hills and the Forest of Ettrick. It 
had been much harried by bands of Northmen, most of whom came 
from the district now called Norway. Edmund granted it to 
Malcolm, King of Scots, on condition that he would fight for him as 
his fellow- worker by sea and land. He also destroyed the inde- 
pendence of the five Danish boroughs, and their territory, like the 
rest of Mercia, was divided into shires, Stamford alone not giving 
its name to a division. 

Under Edmund first came into notice the Englishman who has 

the greatest reputation as a statesman of all those who lived before 

the Norman conquest. This was Dunstan, who was 
Dunstan. 

educated in the Abbey of Glastonbury. This monas- 
tery is situated in Somersetshire, and is believed to have been 
founded by the Christians of Roman Britain. There the British 
hero, Arthur, was said to have been buried, and there lingered what 
remained of the culture and learning which the British Christians 
retained. Thither came Irish pilgiims, and from them Dunstan as 
a lad learned the wisdom that made him famous. He rose to be 
abbot, and devoted himself to the service of his kmg and to the 
spread of religion and culture among the people. 

Edmund died in 946, and was succeeded by his brother Edred. 

Edredand He deposed the Danish King of Northumbria, and 
Edwy. divided it into three divisions, one of which, north of 
the Tweed, often called Lothian, was given to the King of Scots to 
hold on the same terms as Strathclyde. The other two were given 
to Ealdormen, who were called in the north earls, which is the same 
name as the Danish "jarl." Edred died in 955, and his son Edwy 
came to the throne. 

Meanwhile Dunstan had been rising in importance, but in 956 
he quarrelled with Edwy and was banished. Edwy, however, 
was unpopular, for his rule was weak, and his half-brother Edgar 
was in 957 chosen king by all the men who dwelt north of the 
Thames ; and he recalled Dunstan, and made him Bishop of 
London. In 959 Edgar became king of all England on the death 



091. Edmr''s Rule. 



<a' 



29 



of Edwy, and the next year he made Dunstan Archbishop of 
Canterbury. 

Dunstan was a great supporter of the earnest clergy who were 
trying to reform the Church. The Celtic clergy, as we saw, were 
monks. Of late the monks had fallen into bad ways ; policy of 
but Dunstan and his friends did their best to make Dunstan. 
their lives better, and to win back for them the places from which 
they had been ousted by the secular clergy, as the parish priests 
were called. As the monks were more cultivated than the 
seculars, this policy was for the good of the people. The plan was 
resisted by some of the great lords of the south of England, but it 
was supported by the small landowners of the north. This policy 
much improved the condition of the Church. 

Edgar was by far the most powerful of the old English kings. 
In his days a new code of English law was drawn up, and the 
country was so well governed that men looked back 
to his rule as an ideal time which they wished to 
bring back. He gained the title of Edgar the Peaceable. 

Edgar died in 975, and was succeeded by his son Edward, who 
was murdered in 979, while still a boy, by the contrivance of his 
stepmother; and his half-brother, Ethelred, was placed on the throne. 
This happened in the year 979, and Dunstan, who was now a very 
old man, died in 988. 

A terrible time followed Dunstan's death. The Northmen renewed 
their invasions, and met with but a feeble resistance. Ethelred was 
a wretched king, and gained the title of " Unready," „ 

°' . ° *" Third period of 

which means " without counsel," The Northmen northern inva- 
already settled in England sympathized with the in- ^^°^' 

vaders ; the old jealousy between the shires broke out, and for 
twenty years the country suffered miserably. The first of these 
invasions took place in 980. The Northmen had now settled down 
under three kings, those of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden ; and 
it was the Danes and Norwegians who attacked England, Scotland, 
and Ireland, while the Swedes invaded Kussia and the shores of the 
Baltic. In 991 the Danes won the battle of Maldon. Ethehed and 
his wise men could devise no better way of getting 
rid of them than of buying them off. To do this 
they levied a tax, called Danegeld. Of course, the Danes soon 



30 Invasions of the Northmen. t994- 

came back for more, and in 994 Sweyn, King of the Danes, and 
Anlaf, King of the Norwegians, attacked London. They were 
again bought off. Again their invasions were renewed, and larger 
Bums of money were again paid to them in 1002, 1007, and 
1011. 

Ethelred then tried to play off one set of Northmen against 

another. To do this he married, in 1002, Emma, the daughter of 

AUiance with I^ichard I., Duke of Normandy. This, however, failed 

tiie Normans, to win him help, and the same year he arranged a 

Massacre of the massacre of all the Danes who had recently settled in 

Danes. England. The slaughter was carried out on St. Brice's 

Day. Among the slain was the sister of Sweyn, and he hurried to 

revenge her death. Town after town was sacked, and in 1013 

Ethelred fled to Normandy, and Sweyn was acknowledged as king. 

The next year Sweyn died, and then the Danes chose Canute^ 

Sweyn's son; and the English recalled Ethelred. For a time 

ath of Ethelred was successful, and Canute left the country ; 

Ethelred. but he Came back next year, and forced Wessex to 

submit to him, and in the midst of his troubles, in 1016, Ethelred 

died. 

Canute was helped very much by the treachery of Edric Streona, 
or the Grasper. This bad man rose by his abilities to be Alderman 
of Mercia; but he used his talents most selfishly, and betrayed 
first one side and then another. So clever was he, however, that 
he was always able to make the side he was on believe that he 
was going to be faithful. 

Just before Ethelred's death Edric Streona had joined Canute, 
and he now helped to forward Canute's cause. The greater part of 
Edmund Iron- England chose Canute, but London held to Edmund, 
side. the son of Ethelred and his first wife. Edmund Was 

a very different man from his father. He was a great warrior, and 
had won the name of " Ironside i" He left London and collected 
armies in various places, specially in the west, as Alfred had 
done before him. Then he sallied forth and won three battles 
against the Danes. So great was his success that Edric Streona 
came over to his side. This was his ruin ; for in the next battle, 
at Assandun, now Assington, in Essex, Edric, at the critical moment, 
went over to the Danes^ and Edmund was defeated. 



1035.] / Canute. 31 

Edmund and Canute now agreed to divide the kingdom. Edmund 
was to have Wessex, Essex, and East Angha ; Canute partition of 
was to rule over Mercia and Northumbria. This was kingdom, 
settled in 1016 ; but the same year Edmund was murdered, and Edric 
Streona got the credit of the deed. 

Canute began to reign in 1017. He was a great man, and he 

showed it by making the Enghsh respect him and trust him, just 

as if he had been an Enghshman. Canute had a « ^ 

° Canute. 

great scheme in his mind. He wished to create a 

,1 . I . 1 X • 1 1 -KT Canute's policy. 

northern empire, which was to inckide Norway, 
Sweden, Denmark, and England, just as Charles the Great in Germany 
had revived the Roman Empire of the west. He was already King 
of England and Denmark, and in 1028 he conquered Norway. 

In England he ruled well. He began his reign by dividing the 
country into four earldoms. Over East Anglia he put Thurkill ; 
over Northumbria, Eric ; Edric Streona remained Earl Canute's eari- 
of Mercia ; while Canute kept Wessex in his own doms. 

hands. It was not long, however, before the traitor Edric was put 
to death, and then Leofric became Earl of Mercia, and in a short time 
Godwin was made Earl of Wessex. 

Canute married Emma, the widow of Ethelred, perhaps for love, 
possibly to keep on good terms with the Normans. One of Canute's 
notable acts was his pilgrimage to Rome. This jyiarriag-e with 
occurred in 1027, and he did not return till 1029, Emma. 
so sure did he feel that England would be well Pilgrimage to 
governed during his absence. In 1031 Canute forced 
Malcolm, King of Scots, to recognize him as his over- -k^^qi Scots, 
lord, and to do homage for his earldom of Lothian. 

During Canute's reign began the greatness of Godwin, Earl of 
Wessex. He was much trusted by Canute, and was 
left in charge of England when the king was away. 

Canute died in 1035. At his death his great empire broke up. 
Sweyn obtained Norway, Hardicanute Denmark. England was for a 
moment divided. North of the Thames Harold was Harold i. and 
chosen king ; south of it Hardicanute, the son of Emma, Hardicanute. 
who was assisted by Emma and Godwin. In the end Harold was 
acknowledged throughout the country. His reign is only notable 
for one thing. Alfred and Edward, the sons of Ethelred and Emma, 



?>2 



Invasions of the Northmen. 



11040, 



came from Normandy to England. Alfred was blinded and died 
of his wounds ; Edward escaped. For this cruel deed the Normans 
hated the English, and held the family of Godwin responsible. 

Harold was succeeded in 1040 by Hardicanute. He sent to 
Normandy for his half-brother Edward; and when he suddenly 
died, in 1042, the Enghsh went back to the old line, and chose 
Edward, the son of Ethelred and Emma, as their king. 



DATES OF CHIEF GENERAL EVENTS BEFORE THE 
NORMAN CONQUEST 



Caesar's invasions of Britain 

Roman occupation of Britain 

Kingdom of Kent said to have been founded 

Arrival of Augustine 

Preaching of Aidan 

Synod of Whitby 

First invasion of the Northmen 

Egbert becomes King of all England 

Treaty of Chippenham 

Reconquest of the Dane-law 

Strathclyde conquered and given to the King of Scots 

Lothian granted to King of Scots 

Establishment of Danish dynasty 

Restoration of the English line ,„ ,„ 



B.C. 
A 



66 and 54 
,D. 43-410 
.. 449 
.. 597 
.. 634 
.. 664 
.. 787 
.. 827 
.. 879 
907-924 
.. c. 945 
,. c. 950 
.. 1017 
.. 1042 



CHAPTER V. 

THE NOEMAN CONQUEST. 

Edwaed was not a vigorous king ; he had little authority, while 
the great earls grew more and more powerful, and their alliances 
and quarrels make up the chief part of the history Edward the 
of his reign. The most powerful families were those .Confessor, 
of Godwin, Earl of Wessex, Leofric, Earl of Mercia, and Siward, 
Earl of Northumbria. Edward married Edith, the daughter of 
Earl Grodwin, which added to the consequence of that house. 
Godwin had many sons, of whom the most notable were Harold 
and Tostig. 

Edward had been brought up in Normandy, and he was naturally 
fond of Norman life and manners. In those days the Normans were 
in many ways more refined than the English, and His fondness 
theh clergy were better educated. Edward, there- for Normans, 
fore, was wishful to bring over to England what he could of Norman 
civilization. He spoke French himself, and soon filled his court 
with French-speaking Normans. Some of these he placed in high 
offices in Church and State. Robert of Jumieges, a Norman, became 
Bishop of London and then Archbishop of Canterbury. Foreign 
merchants crowded to London, and it seemed as if the power of the 
English was passing into Norman hands, and that Enghsh customs 
were to be changed for Norman. Doubtless there was much to be 
said for adopting the manners of the Normans where they were an 
improvement, but it was not to be expected that the English would 
like it. Accordingly there was much discontent, and Godwin and 
his sons set themselves at the head of the English party. 

Matters came to a head in 1051. In that year Eustace of 
Boulogne, who was returning from a visit to his brother-in-law 
Edward, marched into Dover as though it were a conquered 

D 



34 The Norman Conquest. [losi- 

town, and quartered his men on the inhabitants. The men of 
Banisiiment of Do"^er resisted, and a fight followed, in which some of 
tiie Godwins, -fche strangers were slain. Edward called on Godwin, 
as Earl of Wessex, to pmiish the rioters. He refused, and Edward 
called on Leofric of Mercia and Siward of Northumbria to help him 
against Godwin. A meeting of the wise men was called, and God- 
win and Harold were outlawed. Godwin went to Bruges in 
Flanders, Harold to Ireland, and Edith, the king's wife, was shut 
up in a monastery. 

While Godwin and Harold were away, Edward received a visit 

from Wilham, Duke of Normandy. Emma, Edward's mother, was 

William's sreat-aunt, but he himself had no blood- 

"Visit of 

\7imam of relationship with the English royal family. WiUiam 

Normandy. ^ ^^-^^^ Normans around the king ; he saw that Normans 
held great places in Church and State, he heard French spoken on 
every side, and, being an ambitious man, he conceived the idea of 
making himself King of England. For a Norman, there was nothing 
out of the common in this. At that very time one Norman was 
estabHshing himself as ruler of southern Italy; it was only ten 
years since a Northman had reigned in England ; and there was no 
likelihood that he would meet with a very formidable resistance, 
now that Godwin and Harold had been removed. It is said that 
Edward made a promise of the crown to William. This he had 
no right to do, because the election was in the hands of the 
witena-gemot ; but William returned home well satisfied. 

In the next year, however, the scene was changed. Godwin and 
Return of God- Harold came back, and the king was forced to make 
winandexpui- terms with them. Kobert, Archbishop of Canterbury, 

Normans. and most of the Frenchmen were expelled, and the 
English party triumphed. 

The house of Godwin was now supreme. Godwin died in 1053, 

but his son Harold became Earl of Wessex ; and in 1055, on the 

, death of Siward, Tostig became Earl of Northumbria. 

Supremacy of ' ° 

thefamUyof Harold and Tostig made war against the Welsh, 

° ^^^' while Edward remained at home in his palace. The 

whole power of the kingdom seemed to be falling into their hands, 

when Tostig by his bad conduct made himself so unpopular that the 

Northumbrians expelled him, and made Morcar, a grandson of 



ioee.j Harold II. 



35 



Leofric, their earl. His brother had become Earl of Mercia, so that 
the chief power in the kingdom was divided between Harold, 
Edwin, and Morcar. A year after the expulsion of Tostig, Edward 
died, in 1066. He was called the Confessor on account of his 
piety ; but he Was a very feeble king. 

At the death of Edward it was very difficult to choose a successor. 
Of the direct English line, there was living the Atheling, or Prince 
Edgar, grandson of Edmund Ironside ; but he was quite Election of 
a boy at the time, and even when he became a man ^ successor, 
his character Was weak. It was pretty certain that William of 
Kormandy would try to seize the throne, so the English wise men 
determined to pass over Edgar, and make Harold, the son of God^ 
win, who had taken the lead against the Normans, king. 

Accordingly, Harold became king in 1066 ; and his whole reign 
Was made up of a struggle to keep the crown against ^ ^ 
"William the Norman. 

William had no difficulty in finding pretexts for attacking Harold* 
He had reaUy no claim at all; but he declared that he was 
Edward's appointed heir, and on that plea demanded -^iuiam's pre- 
the crown. Against Edgar Atheling he could have texts for 
said httle or nothing, but it happened that he could 
make a very plausible case against Harold. Harold had once been 
wrecked on the coast of Normandy, and had been tricked by 
William into taking a particularly solemn oath to be his man, and 
also, it was said, not to stand in the way of William^s claims to the 
crown. Again, Harold and his brothers had incurred the hostility 
of the Normans by their resistance to foreigners. The Normans, 
too, wished to take revenge for the murder of Alfred. The blessing 
of the Pope was obtained on the ground that Stigand had been 
wrongly consecrated on the expulsion of the Norman, Robert, and 
also had received his pallium, or archbishop's cloak, from a rival 
pope. 

Each of these pleas was weak enough by itself, but when they 
were all bound together they made a most formidable bundle ; and 
when they were presented to the Norman knights, who dreamt of 
dukedoms and earldoms in England, they were received as indis- 
putable, while a crowd of foreign adventurers flocked to William's 
banner, to join in the spoliation of England. 



36 The Norman Conquest. tioee. 

On his side, Harold was not idle. He led the fyrd, or mihtia, to 
Preparations the south coast and fortified some of the important 

ofHaroid. posts, while he himself, with his huscarls, or hody- 
guard, any one of whom was said to be a match for two ordinary 
men, was ready to hurry to the point attacked. 

Unfortunately, William was not Harold's only enemy. His 

brother Tostig was disgusted at not being put back into his earldom 

Invasion of of Nortliumbria, and was now cruising about the coast 

Haroi?H:ard- ^^^^Ij ^^ make an attack. While so doing he fell in 

rada. ^th the ships of Harold Hardrada, King of Norway. 

This Harold was a typical Northman ; he had served in the Norman 

guard of the Emperor of the East at Constantinople, and had been 

to Egypt and gained a great reputation by slaying a crocodile. 

He agreed to help Tostig, and they sailed up the Humber to attack 

York. Morcar and his brother Edwin, who had come to his 

assistance, were defeated at the battle of Fulford on September 20. 

Harold's Harold marched to help them, and attacked Tostig 

"st *mfcrd^ and the Norwegians at Stamford Bridge on the York- 
Bridge, shire Derwent. Harold offered his brother a third of 
his kingdom, but Tostig refused to desert his allies, and the battle 
began. In the end the invaders were defeated, and Tostig and 
Harold Hardrada were both slain. The battle was fought September 
25, and three days afterwards William of Normandy landed at 
Pevensey. 

Harold at once set off to meet him, and it was only fair that 
Haroid'smarcii Edwin and Morcar should give their best aid; 
soutii. 1^^^^ though Harold had married their sister, they 
^IrySSS" refused to do so ; and so Harold, taking with him his 
and Morcar. huscarls, was obliged to go by himself. On his way 
he raised the fyrd of Kent, Essex, and East Anglia, and led them, 
with the Londoners, against William. 

Between Pevensey and London are two ridges of downs, one 
near the coast, the other much nearer the Thames, and between 

The battle- them lay, in those days, the forest tract of the weald. 

ground. Probably it would have been better for Harold to 

have fought William on that ridge which is further inland, as 

William would then have had a long march through difficult 

country, while Harold would have been nearer to his friends. 



1066.] Battle of Hastings. 37 

However, he chose to fight on the ridge at Senlac, seven miles from 
Hastings, on October 14th, 1066. 

Harold formed his men English fashion, on the brow of the hill 
behind a stockade, which they defended chiefly with their great 
battle-axes, while William relied on his archers and Battle of 
mounted knights. The Normans were the more Hastings, 
scientific soldiers, and when they found it impossible to break the 
Enghsh line, they, by William's orders, feigned flight. The English 
then broke their ranks, and the Normans, turning upon them, charged 
so fiercely that they prevented the English from reforming their line. 
Meanwhfle the Norman archers shot fast upon the defending force, 
and, aiming their arrows into the air, made them drop on the heads 
of the English, who were using their shields to guard their bodies. 
By one of these arrows Harold was killed, and then the English 
force was thrown more than ever into disorder, and men fell fast, 
till at length the Normans were masters of the field. Several of 
Harold's brothers were among the slain, and the power of Wessex 
was utterly crushed. 

From Hastings William marched to Dover, and secured it, so 
that he might have a safe line of retreat to Normandy. He then 
set out for London; but, instead of attacking it, he -w-miam's 
merely burnt some houses in Southwark, and then march ou 
marched up the Thames to Wallingford, where he 
crossed the river, and took up a position at Berkhampstead, near the 
Watling Street. By this manoeuvre he cut ofi" London from the 
rest of the country, and made the position of the Londoners hopeless. 
The witena-gemot, therefore, which in the first excitement had elected 
Edgar Athelingi king, finding that William had outwitted them, gave 
way. The leaders, including Edgar himself, came Election of 
over to William's camp ; a new meeting of the witena- ■Wiiiiam as 
gemot elected William king, as their predecessors ^°'^" 

had chosen Sweyn and Canute, and a new epoch in English history 
began. 

On the whole, we cannot regret the result of Hastings. Just as 
great advantages had come to England from her imion with the 
Church of Eome, so it was a great thing for the Results of Nor- 
English to become an important member of the family ^^^ conquest. 

1 "Atheling " was the English word for a prince, or son of a king. 



38 



The Norman Conquest, 



[loee. 



of European nations. The Normans brought with them the 
greatest political ability, and their clergy the highest culture then 
known in Europe ; and though it was a hard thing for the English 
to be conquered, still their descendants have derived greater benefits 
from their defeat than they could possibly have done from their 
victory. 



DATES OF CHIEF BATTLES BEFORE THE NORMAN 



Pyrham 


'■A-fj -« f 


577 


Chester 


... . ... 007 


or 613 


Hatfield 




633 


Maserfield .,. ,., 


... ... ••• 


642 


Winwidfield 


... ... ... 


655 


Ellandun 


... 


825 


Hengist's Down 


... 


836 


Ashdown .. 


.., 


871 


Ethandun 


... 


878 


Brunanburh ... 


».. ... ... 


937 


Maldon 


... ... ... 


991 


Assandun ... 


... •• ... 


1016 


Stamford Bridge ,„ 


•«• >•• *> 


1066 



BOOK II 

THE NORMAN KINGS 



I.— THE NORMAN KINGS OF ENGLAND, 1066-1154. 

■William the ConcLueror, = Matilda of Flanders. 
1066-1087. I 



Robert, 

Duke of 

Normandy, 

d. 1134. 



William Rufus, Henry, = Matilda Adela = Stephen 



1087-1100. 



1100-1135. 



(see I.), 
d. 1118. 



William, William, Matilda, = (1) Emperor 



{ 



d. 1128. d. 1120. d. 1167. 



Henry V. 

(2) Geoffrey 

of Anjou. 



Robert 
of 
Gloucester. 



of Blois. 



Stephen, = Matilda of Henrj% 
1135-1154, I Boulogne. Bishop of 
Winchester. 



Eustace, 
d. 1153. 



And 
others. 



(2) Henry XL, 
1154-1189. 

signifies illegitimate. 

IV.— THE KINGS OF SCOTLAND, 1066-1214. 
Duncan I., 1034-1040. 



Malcolm III., = Margaret, 



1058-1093. 



d. 1093. 



Donald Bane, 

1094-1097, 
ancestor of John Comyn, 
murdered by Bruce, 1306. 



Duncan I., Edgar, Alexander I., Matilda, David L, = Dau. of 



1093. 



1097-1107. 1107-1124. 



d, 1118, 1124-1153. 
m. Henry I., 
d. 1135. 



Wal- 
theof. 



Henry, Earl of Huntingdon. 



Malcolm IV., 
1153-1166. 



William the David, 

Lion, Earl of Huntingdon, 

1166-1214. ancestor of Bruce 

and Balliol. 



CHAPTEE T. 

William I., 1066-1087 (21 years). 
Born 1027 ; married, 1053, Matilda of Flanders. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — Odo of Bayeux, William Fitz-Osbern, Edgar 
Atheling, Edwin, Morcar, Stigand, Waltheof, Lanfranc, Ralf Guader, 
Hoger of Breteuil, Robert of Belleme, Robert Mowbray. 

William the Conqueror was crowned at Westminster on Christ- 
mas Day, 1066. He had been duly elected by the witena-gemot, and 
looked upon himself, not as a conqueror, but as the rightful sovereign 
of the English. He was a man of great energy and ability. By 

William's tis father's death he had been left Duke of Normandy 

youth. when only eight years old, and he had had to fight 

hard to keep his place. When he grew up he became one of the 

strongest as well as one of the ablest men of his time, and made 

himself feared and respected by all his subjects. 

In ruling England, William had to keep three things in view: 

William's 0-) ^^ secure his hold over the country ; (2) to reward 
policy. iiis Norman followers ; (3) to keep the Norman nobles 
from becoming too powerful. 

The battle of Hastings had only overthrown the power of Harold 
and weakened the men of the south-east ; the men of the north 
Revolts of tiie and west had not yet fought with the Normans. 

English. ^rom 1067 to 1071 rebellions were continually break- 
ing out in different parts of the island. In 1067 the men of Kent and 

Kent and Hereford, taking advantage of a visit which William 

Hereford. made to Normandy, rose in revolt against Odo, Bishop 
of Bayeux, and William Fitz-Osbern, whom William had left in 
command; but the revolts were unconnected, and William had 
taken to Normandy Edgar Atheling, Edwin, Morcar, and Stigand, 
the natural leaders of the English. The Normans soon crushed 
the English; but the next year risings took place in the west, 



1069.] William the CoJiqueror, 43 

helped by the sons of Harold, and in JSTorthumbria, where Edgar 
Atheling, who had escaped from William's court to Scotland, 
gave his aid. Again the English were beaten; so "West and 
in 1069 they called in the help of the Danes, and invasioT'o/Se 
under Waltheof, the son of Siward, made another Danes, 
great effort in the north. The united armies of English and Danes 
captured York and massacred the garrison, and for a moment it 
seemed as if William's power was in serious danger ; but he hurried 
to the spot, bought off the Danes, and defeated the English. 

To guard himself against similar attacks he ravaged the country 
from the Humber to the Tees. A glance at the map shows th^t 
this included the largest part of the fertile land of Ravaging of 
the north of England. The result was that the tue north, 
north of England, always less fertile than the south, was thoroughly 
thrown back, and never regained its position till the growth of 
manufactures in the eighteenth century. A last effort was made by 
the English in 1071. In this year, for the first time, .„ ,^ ^ 

, ^ J ' » Revolt of 

Edwin and Morcar put themselves at the head of the Edwin and 
rebels, but they were defeated. Edwin was killed by 
his own men ; but Morcar for some time held out with Hereward 
in the Isle of Ely, which the fens then made almost impregnable, 
William attacked it both by water and land, and the English 
surrendered. After these disasters the English gave up the 
struggle, and William was able to carry out his policy. 

He began by putting Normans into the chief places in Church 
and State. Edwin and Morcar had lost their earldoms, and 
William did not revive them. He thought that great 

. Normans 

earldoms like those of Mercia and Wessex were placed in chief 
dangerous to the power of the king, and he had good . , ^°^ ^" ^ 

° r o' D Abolition of 

reason for doing so. On the Continent, the dukes, the great 
who had originally been merely governors of districts 
such as Burgundy or Bavaria, just as the English earls were 
governors of Mercia and Wessex, had gradually made themselves 
hereditary rulers of these districts ; they had granted land to their 
followers on military service, they had gained control over the law 
courts, and they were rapidly making themselves stronger than the 
kings. William had himself been Duke of Normandy, and he was 
determined to have no one in England with similar power. 



44 The Norma7i Kings. [io7o. 

Accordingly, in rewarding his followers with titles and lands, he 

followed a careful plan. He had plenty of land to dispose of, for the 

English rebellions had been followed by vast confis- 

Careful ° •' 

distribution of cations. This land he distributed to his followers; 
^^^ ^' but in giving it to them, he took good care that no 
one should have too much land in one place. For instance, Robert 
of Mortain had seven hundred and ninety-three manors, but they 
were situated in twenty counties. 

Only three exceptions were made. In Cheshire, Durham, and 
Kent, the earls were owners of the whole county, and the other 
landholders held their estates from them. These were called 

Counties Counties palatine. Cheshire was a safeguard against 

palatine. ^j^^ Welsh, Durham against Scotland, Kent against 
the Continent; but Durham and Kent were given respectively 
to the Bishop of Durham and to Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, who, being 
churchmen, could not marry and found families, while Cheshire only 
was given to a layman, as it was thought that the Welsh would 
give the earl sufficient occupation to prevent him thinking of treason. 

To keep down the English, William built castles in all the large 

towns and at places of military importance ; but he 

kept all these in his own hands, and gave them to 

men whom he could trust. It was not his policy to allow castles 

to be built which might be used against himself. 

In the Church William replaced the English prelates and abbots 
by Normans. Some were deposed and others died; but in each 
Normans in the case a Norman filled the vacancy. In 1070 Stigand 

ciiurcii. ^^g deposed, and Lanfranc became Archbishop of 
Canterbury. He was a learned and able man, and William found 
him a most useful adviser. These changes were good for the English 
Church. The Norman bishops, though some were statesmen and 
warriors rather than ecclesiastics, were more cultured than the 
English, and they brought the Church of England into closer union 
with Rome — a change which at that time was a good thing. 

In 1070 William made twelve men of each shire declare the laws 
Declaration of ^^ ^^ English, as it was his intention to preserve 
the law by the these laws, and not to supersede them by Norman 

English. ^. ^ '' 

practices. 
While he was making these changes, WilHam steadily maintained 



1085.] William the Conqueror. 45 

the rights of the old Engh'sh kings. He mvaded Scotland, and forced 
Malcolm, King of Scots, to '' become his man " in 1072, Relation with 
and he refused to hold England as a fief of the Pope, Scotland, 
as Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) demanded that he should in 1076. 
Wilham also took means to curb the power of the _ 

1 , /^v 1 T^ Relations with 

Pope and clergy. He ordered (1) that no Pope thepopeand 
should be acknowledged in England, and that no ^^^^^^ergry. 
letters should be received from a Pope without the king's consent ; 
(2) that no canons should be made by the clergy, or (3) any of his 
ministers be excommunicated, without his express sanction. 

William's measures were not popular with his Norman followers. 
They expected that, when their duke became a king, they would 
naturally become dukes and earls, and when they ^^^ 
found that William meant to curb their power, some ment of the 
went home in disgust and some rebelled. For one tween^Sie kfng 
hundred years the barons continually tried to make ^'^'i the barons, 
themselves as strong as their fellows on the Continent. Against 
their efforts the king was usually helped by the clergy and the 
English, whose interest it was to curb the power of the turbulent 
barons. The towns had not been of much account Growth of the 
before the Conquest ; but when England became con- towns, 
nected with the Continent, trade grew and they throve fast. In 
return for sums of money the kings granted them charters and 
privileges, and they soon became very important. 

The first rebellion of the barons took place in 1074. Ealf Guader, 
Earl of Norfolk, and Roger of Breteuil, Earl of Hereford, were the 
leaders, and they asked Waltheof, son of Siward, Earl jtebeUions of 
of Northumbria, to join them. Their wish was to the barons, 
make one of themselves king, and the other two dukes. Waltheof 
seems to have refused ; but he fell under William's suspicion, and 
was executed. The rebellion was crushed by Lanfranc, with the 
aissistance of the English. The next rebellion occurred in 1078. 
Robert of Belleme (sometimes spelt Belesme) and Robert Mowbray 
were the leaders, and they obtained the help of William's eldest son, 
Robert. They were defeated. 

In 1085 the king ordered a complete survey of the whole kingdom 
to be made, so that he might know exactly how much land each 
man had, and what payments were due to the king. Commissioners 



46 The Norman Kings. tios?. 

were sent to the shire-moots, where they learned from the great 
Domesday i^^n the general divisions of the shire, then to the 
Book. hundred-moot, and finally they called before them, 

from each township, the reeve, the parish priest, and six villeins, or 
men who held land under the lord of the township. From them they 
learnt the amount of arable, pasture, and wood land, to whom it be- 
longed, what mills and fisheries there were, and other particulars; 
what had been the value of the township in the time of King Edward, 
and what it was now worth. The results of these inquiries were written 
but in a book, called Domesday Book. It gives us a picture of all 
England except Cumberland, Westmoreland, Northumberland, and 
Durham, some of which were waste and some in the hands of the Scots, 
and it is of incalculable value as a description of England at the time* 
When the book was finished, WiUiam summoned all the English 
landholders to meet him at Salisbury. There he made each of 
„ ,^ . them swear allegiance to him, whether he held from 

Ijandliolders* ° ' 

oatiL to tiie an intermediate lord or not. This had a great effect. 
^' Abroad, the Normans took an oath only to the 

Duke of Normandy, and if he rebelled against the King of France, 
they were only doing their duty in following him ; but in England, 
if vassals followed their lord against the king, they were guilty of 
treason. Though this oath was not feudal, from the meeting of 
Salisbury it is convenient to date the establishment in England of 
what is called Feudalism. 

By this is meant the system in which the king is regarded as the 
supreme owner of the land, and as letting it out to his tenants-in- 

Feudaiism chief or barons, who hold on condition of serving 

defined. ^xm. in War, and of paying him certain dues. They, 

in their turn, let their land to sub-tenants, who hold it on the same 

terms, and so the whole of society is bound together by a system 

of land tenure. 

During the whole of his reign William was at enmity with the 
King of France. In 1073 he led an English army against the 

■Wars with province of Maine, just south of Normandy, and 

France. captured it from the French king ; and in 1087, stung 

by a joke of that monarch, he attacked Mantes, a town on the 

Seine. Here his horse plunged on some hot cinders, and William 

Was so severely hurt that he died, 1087. 



1087.] William the Conqueror. 47 

William was a harsh ruler, but he did a great deal of good to 

England. We saw how the quarrels between the great earls 

weakened Harold at Hastings, and they would prob- .^ ^, 

° ' -^ ^ Death, afld 

ably have become just as oppressive to their subjects character of 
as the French nobles did. William prevented this, iniam, 

and by making the crown powerful, and reljdng on the English 
and the clergy against the barons, did a great deal to make 
England a united kingdom. His reign, however, was a tenible 
time ; the king raised many taxes, and the barons oppressed the 
English. William and the barons were very fond of hunting. 
William kept all the folkland as forest, and added to it by 
making the New Forest in Hampshire a place for sport, for " he 
loved the tall deer as though he were their father." From this 
time the waste land of the kingdom which was not enclosed in any 
manor or township was called the forest. In this the barons might 
not hunt, and to preserve the game a law was made that he who 
slew a deer should be bhnded. 



CHAPTER II. 
William II., 1087-1100 (13 years). Bom about 1060. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — Odo of Bayeux, Lanfranc, Robert of Belleme, 
Robert Mowbray, Ranulf Flambard, and Anselm. 

William the Conqueror left three sons, Robert, William, and 
Henry. Of these, Robert succeeded his father as Duke of Nor- 

Eiectionof mandy ; while William, who had been his father's 
WiUiamRufus. favourite, crossed the Channel at once with a letter 
from the dead king to Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury. This 
prelate had been his tutor and had knighted him ; but before Lanfranc 
declared in William's favour, he insisted upon the young prince taking 
an oath to rule weU and to follow his advice. He then threw all 
his weight into the scale, and secured the election of William. This 
arrangement followed the idea of the time, that ancestral possessions 
should go to the eldest son, and acquired property to the younger. 
Henry, the youngest, had to content himself for the present with 
five thousand pounds left by his father. 

William IL, who was called Rufus from his ruddy countenance, 

was a bad man but a vigorous king, because his instinct made 

him keep in check the great barons, and prevent 

'^^'^^° ■ them from building castles, from which they might 

plunder the country; and thus he secured peace for the culti- 
vators of the soil and the traders of the towns. No doubt he 
levied very heavy taxes ; but no taxation could ever be so bad as 
the irregular exactions of the barons ; and so, though times were 
hard for all, the country was moving along the road marked out 
for it by the wisdom of William the Conqueror, and, as long as 
Lanfranc lived, the young king followed his advice, and adopted the 
old plan of playing off the English against the barons. He had need 
to do this, for the gi'eat nobles hated the Conqueror's system, and 



1090.] William Eufus. 49 

they were always on the watch to gain an advantage over the king. 
Many of them would have preferred Robert for king, because, though 
brave, he was careless and easy-going, and would have given them 
more licence. 

The leading barons were Odo of Bayeux, Roger Montgomery, 
and Robert Mowbray. Odo contrived a conspiracy against 
William in the first year of his reign, and fortified nebenion of 
the castles of Rochester and Arundel ; but William *^® barons, 
called on all the English to help him, and said that any one who 
did not come to his aid would be branded by the name of " nithing," 
which the English thought disgraceful. They fl.ocked to his standard 
in crowds ; both the castles were taken, and Odo was ignominiously 
expelled from the country. The careless Robert failed to come to 
the aid of his friends, and they were one by one defeated or forced 
to come to terms. Some time afterwards Robert Mowbray rebelled 
and fortified Bamborough ; but he was captured when away from 
his stronghold, and his wife was forced to surrender by the threat 
of seeing her husband blinded. This happened in 1095. 

In 1090 William, who had won over to his side a number of 

the barons of Normandy, invaded that duchy; but the nobles who 

held land on both sides of the Channel disliked ,„„. 

William in- 

either a war or a separation between England and vades 
Normandy, because they feared to lose one or other ^^^^^ y- 
of their estates ; so they brought about an arrangement by which 
it was settled that, if either brother died v^thout children, the 
other was to succeed to his dominions. William shortly afterwards 
found means to induce his brother to pledge him Normandy for 
a sum of money. 

William found both the Scots and Welsh troublesome neighbours, 
and had to take means to defend his kingdom from their assaults. 
Malcolm, King of Scots, the brother-in-law of Edgar Poiicy towards 
Atheling, sympathized with the barons, and had Scotland, 
claims of his own to Cumberland and Westmoreland, which had 
been granted by King Edmund to the King of Scots, and he took 
the opportunity of William's absence in Normandy to invade the 
northern counties. On his return from the Continent, William 
marched against him, and, being struck with the position of Carlisle 
on the south bank of the river Eden, caused it to be fortified, and 

B 



50 



Norman Ki?is[s. [io9o- 



peopled it with a colony of south-country men. Situated at one 
Carlisle extremity of the old Roman wall, it matched New- 
fortified, castle at the other, and these two fortresses made it 
harder for the Scots to penetrate into Durham and Cumberland than 
formerly. Malcolm was soon afterwards slain in Northumberland, 
near Alnwick. 

Twice William invaded Wales with a regular army, but found 
his heavy cavalry no match for the agile Welshmen in their 
Policy towards mountains and ravines, so he contented himself with 
Wales. checking the depredations of the Welsh by building 
a line of fortresses in Cheshire and the Severn Valley. At the 
same time, he arranged that the war should be carried into their 
territory by making a free grant of all land taken from the Welsh 
to the conqueror. This plan afforded occupation to the unruly 
barons of the border, and was so successful that in a short time 
almost all the lowlands of Wales and the southern coast was in the 
hands of Norman adventurers. 

Lanfranc died in 1089, and the king then made Ranulf Flambard 

his chief adviser. Flambard was one of the Normans who had been 

Extortions of in England in the time of Edward the Confessor. 

Flambard. jje was a churchman, and an able as well as an 

unscrupulous man ; but he served the king well, and helped him to 

grow rich by enforcing the feudal dues. When any 

man who held land from the king died, his heir had 

to pay a large sum of money called a "relief," because it was paid on 

tahing up the estate. If the heir was a minor, the king acted as 

his guardian, bringing him up, but putting the proceeds of the estate 

into the royal treasury; and when he came of age he had to pay a 

relief as well. If the heir happened to be a woman, the king claimed 

the right to bestow her in marriage, and in this way rewarded his 

friends. All these rights the king exercised, because the landowners 

were regarded as officers as well as tenants of the king, whose chief 

duty was to defend their estates, and to provide soldiers to fight for 

the king ; and the king naturally claimed to see that these matters 

were not neglected during a minority, and that an heiress did not 

jnarry one of his enemies. By enforcing these dues strictly, and also 

by exacting heavy aids, i.e. taxes paid by the feudal tenants, the king 

kept the treasury well supplied. 



1096.] William Rufus, 51 

The clergy at that time held the greater part of their lands, just 
like laymen, by feudal tenure, but with this diflference. There were 
no minorities and no heiresses, and so the king and Exactions from 
Flambard tried to make up for this, first, by keeping t^e cierg-y. 
bishoprics and abbeys vacant while they seized the revenues ; and, 
secondly, by making the new bishops and abbots pay a large sum 
before they were allowed to be consecrated. Thus, after Lanfranc's 
death, no new Archbishop of Canterbury was appointed for four 
years, and WilKam was only, when he thought himself dying, 
induced to name Anselm as Lanfranc's successor. William, 
however, recovered, and he then found that his new archbishop, 
a pious and able man, did not approve of his manner of life, 
and the way he was robbing the Church. A series of quarrels 
followed, and at last Anselm left England to lay his case before the 
Pope. 

In 1096 all Europe was stirred by the preparations for the first 
Crusade. Many years before, Jerusalem had been conquered by 
the Arab followers of Mahomet ; but they had treated causes of the 
the Christians well, and allowed them either to live ^^^'^ Crusade. , 
in the city, or to come and go as pilgrims or merchants. Under 
their rule the great Easter fair at Jerusalem became one of the great 
events of the commercial world, where Italian merchants met the 
traders of the East, and the spices and silks of Arabia and India were 
exchanged for the productions of Europe. But in 1076 Jerusalem 
fell into the hands of the Seljukian Turks, a wild tribe of Mahometans, 
who had made their way from the highlands of Asia. They hated 
Christianity, and cared nothing for commerce, so they oppressed 
pilgrims and merchants alike; and by degrees trade was utterly 
ruined, and the cries of the persecuted pilgrims, and the murmurs 
of the ruined Italians, coupled with the fears of the emperor at 
Constantinople that he would be exposed to the attacks of the 
barbarous infidels, created the greatest excitement in Europe. The 
Normans who had been fighting the Saracens in 

o- -1 1 1 1 1 . -, 1 . Preactimg- of 

iSicily had long been anxious to extend their con-' Peter the 
quests in the East ; so Normans, emperor, Italians, ^^^^ ' 

and adventurers were only too thankful when Peter the Hermit, 
who had himself sufi'ered from the persecutions of the Turks, 
travelled through Europe and preached a holy war, for the 



52 Norman Kings, [iioo. 

recovery of Jerusalera and the Holy Sepulclire from the hands of 
the unbelievers. Then Pope Urban II. took up the cry, and 
The first when it was raised, plenty of people, some from pure 
Crusade. motives, some from interest, were eager to join in the 
expedition. The kings of France and England approved the 
plan, for it took away some of the most warlike of their subjects, 
and William Kufus was glad to take Normandy in pledge for ten 
thousand marks, to enable his brother Robert to betake himself to 
the East. After numerous adventures the Crusaders, or Grossmen, 
who wore the cross on their backs, conquered Jerusalem and 
estabhshed a Christian kingdom. Except a few of the leaders, who 
acquired shares in the new conquests, such as Bohemund, a Norman 
of Tarentum, who became Prince of Antioch, few of the Crusaders 
gained much except glory from their efforts, and the real advantage 
of the Crusades fell to the peaceful inhabitants of Europe, and the 
Kings, who, in the absence of their vassals, took the opportunity to 
consolidate their power, and the merchants of the Italian republics, 
such as Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, who, under the banner of the Cross, 
re-established their trade with the far East. 

While Robert was away, William, who had been hunting in the 

Death of '^^'^ Forest in Hampshire, was found with an arrow 

William. \^ j^jg heart, and though many stories were told of 

the event, no one can say with certainty how or by whose hand he 

met his death. 



CHAPTEE m. 

Henry I., 1100-1135 (35 years). 

T» tr^no ' J ( 1100, Matilda of Scotland. 

Born 1068 ; married i ^ ^ «-. a j i <• t 

I 1121, Adela of Louvain. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — Anselm, Eobert of Belleme, Roger of 
Salisbury, William Clito. 

Henry, the youngest son of the Conqueror, was hunting in the 

forest when Rufus was killed, and he hurried at once to Winchester 

to secure the treasures of the late king. Robert was Election of 

still in the East, and no one pressed his claims; so a Henry i. 

small assembly of prelates and nobles chose Henry for king, and he 

was crowned, in the absence of Anselm, by Maurice, Bishop of 

London. 

The new king began his reign by four popular acts. He issued 

a charter, married Matilda, the daughter of Malcolm, 

Popular acts 

King of Scots and Margaret, the sister of Edgar 

Atheling, put Ranulf Flambard in prison, and recalled Anselm. 

Henry's charter is a very important document; it shows us what 
were the chief grievances of which the nobles and clergy complained, 
and the way in which they might be remedied. charter of 
Henry promised that the Church should be free, and Henry, 
that all bad customs should be abolished, especially ciiurcii. 
that of making a profit out of the revenues of vacant bishoprics and 
abbeys, which had been the chief cause of complaint against 
William Rufus. The nobles were to pay to the king 
only such reliefs as were just and lawful, instead of 
any sum that the king might choose to demand ; and heiresses and 
widows were not to be married against their wiU. Lands which 
were held by knight-service, i.e. on condition that the holder should 
provide a horseman in armour for the king's wars, were to be free 
from any other service. All personal property, i,e. money, chattels, or 



54 Norman Kings. [iioo- 

furniture, might be disposed of by will. To conciliate the lower 

orders, the tenants-in-chief were ordered to deal with 
People. , . 11.1111 mi 1 

their tenants as the king dealt by them. The laws of 

Edward the Confessor were to be retained with the improvements 

which had been introduced by William the Conqueror. This 

charter shows us the exact position of the king. He was in conflict 

with the higher classes, the clergy, and the nobles ; but between them 

and the people he was an arbitrator, to whom they could look for 

justice, and hence, when the king found himself at war with his 

nobles, he could ask the people to support him as their champion. 

Henry's marriage with Matilda was popular with the Enghsh, 
whom he wished to please ; but it annoyed the Normans, who laughed 
at Henry and his queen, as the Goodman Godric and his wife 
Godgifu, after some English story. The children of the marriage, 
as descendants of William the Conqueror and of Alfred, had a claim 
to the allegiance of both peoples. 

The imprisonment of Ranulf Flambard was pleasing to Church- 
men, nobles, and people alike. It was said that he had not only 
Imprisonment fleeced, but flayed the flock. His ill-gotten wealth, 
cfFiambard. howevcr, helped him to get a rope conveyed into 
the Tower in a jar of wine, and with it he managed to escape, and 
fled to Normandy. 

Henry had not been king long before he found himself at war 
"War with the with his barons. Their leader was Robert of Belleme, 
barons. Yi2A of Shrewsbur}^, and son of Roger of Montgomery, 
the old ally of Odo of Bayeux. He held a number of strong castles 
on the Welsh border, and was by far the most powerful lord in 
England. Henry marched against him, captured him and his castles, 
and drove him into exile. The English were delighted at his fate, 
and said, " Rejoice, King Henry, and praise the Lord God ; for you 
are now a true king, having beaten Robert de Belleme and driven 
him into exile." Throughout his reign, Henry always had the good 
will of the English, for his English birth and Enghsh wife made him 
more to them than the Norman Williams ; and to please them he 
learnt both to read and to speak the English tongue. 

W^hen Robert came home he naturally claimed the crowTi, in 
Robert's claim accordance with the arrangement made with Rufus ; 
to the Crown, y^^^ ^|^q English supported Henry, and Robert waa 



1107.] Henry I, 55 

obliged to content himself with Normandy. When Eohert of Belleme 
was expelled, he retired to Normandy and set himself to stir up war 
between the duke and his brother. In 1106 Henry, with an army of 
whom many were English, completely defeated Eobert at Tenche- 
brai. The duke was captured and imprisoned, and Henry became 
master of the whole of Normandy. The English looked on Ten- 
chebrai as a revenge for their defeat at Hastings forty years 
before. 

During the early years of his reign, Henry was engaged in a quarrel 
with Anselm. As the clergy held most of their lands from the king 
as feudal vassals, and had to perform the same military 

, . p • , Henry's 

services as laymen, it was or great importance to the auarrei with 
king that his bishops and abbots should not be his Anseim. 
enemies. The kings, therefore, insisted upon their right of granting 
investiture to abbots and bishops by giving them the ring and staff, 
and of receiving homage from them for their lands. When Anselm 
was on the Continent, he became acquainted with an attempt which 
the pope was making to regain for the Church the control over 
her own officers, and on his return he refused to consecrate bishops 
who had done homage for their lands to the king. Henry clearly 
could not allow the clergy, who owned a very large part of the 
country, to become independent of him, so he refused to give way. 
But both Henry and Anselm were reasonable men, and in 1107 
it was agreed that the election of bishops should be in the hands 
of the cathedral clergy, but that the choice should be Election of 
made in the king's court, that the man chosen should bishops, 
then do homage ^ for his land to the king, and that the archbishop 
should not refuse to consecrate the bishop-elect, and give him the 
ring and staff, because he had done such homage for his land. In 
this way the Church was saved from the scandal of having her 
bishops directly appointed by the king ; on the other hand, the king 
retained his hold over the feudal services due from the Church 
lands, and in reality was still able to secure the election of his 
friends. 

After Henry had settled his diSiculties with his brother Eobert 

1 To do homage meant to become the man of another from whom you 
held land, by an oath binding you to become his man of life and limb, and 
to hold faith for the lands held from him. 



56 Norman Kings. 11107- 

and with Anselm, and had defeated the barons in the person of 
_ . Kobert of Belleme, few events of importance occurred 

Henry s con- ' . ^ 

Btitutionai for some years, and the time was employed in organ- 
izing the administration of the country. In this he 
was aided by Eoger, Bishop of Sahsbury, who had risen from being 
the king's chaplain to be his most trusted adviser, and who played 
a most important part in the system of e-overnment. 

SMre-moots ^ ^ \ ^ ^ "^ ° , , 

and iiundred- Dmre-moots and hundred-moots were ordered to 
moots. meet regularly as heretofore, which was a great 
advantage to the common people and a great check to the barons^ 
because they gave ready justice to all, and as they were presided 
over by the king's officer, the sheriff, the nobles were prevented 
from getting into their hands the administration of justice. 

After the Conquest the place of the Witena-gemot was taken by 
the Magnum Concilium, or Great Council, in which sat the arch- 
Magnum bishops, bishops, chief abbots, and earls, and also the 
concUium. tenants-in-chief, that is, men who held their land as 
vassals of the king, who took the place of the king's Thegns. It 
was, however, summoned only on great occasions, and the chief 
business was done by the Curia Eegis, or king's law court, which 
tried all cases between the great nobles, and other 
cases on appeal from the shire-moot. The members 
of this court were mainly the great officers of the realm, such as 
the Justiciar,! Chancellor, Treasurer, and others ; but the king could 
always name any one else to be a member of the court. When the 
court was sitting to give advice to the king on matters of state, it 
was called the king's Ordinary Council, as opposed to the Great 
Council which sat on special occasions ; when it was dealing with 
matters concerning the king's revenue, which formed at that time a 
large share of the business, it was called the Court of Exchequer ; 
and when it acted as a law court, simply the King's Court, or Curia 

1 The Justiciar, under the Norman and early Angevin kings, was the 
chief officer of the realm. He usually acted as the king's representative, 
and in the king's absence presided over the Curia Regis. From this his chief 
duties became legal, and his title is still preserved in that of Chief Justice. 
The Chancellor was the king's chief secretary, and keeper of his seal. He 
afterwards took the Justiciar's place as Chief Minister. The Treasurer kept 
the king's treasure. He succeeded the Chancellor as Chief Minister, and 
is now represented by a set of Commissioners of whom the chief is called 
the First Lord of the Treasury. 



1135.] Henry I. 57 

Regis. Henry made this court sit regularly, and some of its money 
accounts made in this reign are still preserved. 

Moreover, he connected the shire-moots with this court by some- 
times sending members of the Curia Regis to sit in the shire-moots, 
which was a step towards collecting into a regular itinerant 
system the administration of justice throughout the justices, 
country. By this Henry conferred a great benefit on his subjects, 
and the order he kept was so good that he gained the honourable 
title of " The Lion of Justice." 

Henry and Matilda had two children, WilHam and Matilda. In 
1120, when William was eighteen, his father began to take steps 
to secure for him the kingdom, and made the barons Death of Prince 
of Normandy swear allegiance to him. Unfortunately, "w-iiuam. 
on the return voyage, the prince's ship, owing to the drunken careless- 
ness of the crew, ran upon a rock and sank, and all on board but one 
perished. After the death of his son, Henry married again, for his 
wife Matilda had died in 1118 ; but, as he had no children, he set 
about securing the succession for Matilda, his daughter. 

This lady had married Henry V., the emperor ; she had no children, 
and on his death had returned to England in 1125. Accordingly, 
Henry called his barons together, and persuaded them AUeeiance 
to swear allegiance to her as their future sovereign. sworn to 
Henry's great fear was that William Clito, son of 
Robert of Normandy, would be her rival, as he was a young and 
vigorous man, and had the support of the King of France ; so, 
to strengthen Matilda on the Continent, he arranged a marriage 
between her and Geoffrey, the son of Fulk, Count of Anjou. This 
marriage pleased neither the English nor the Normans, of whom 
the Angevins were the hereditary foes ; and as Geoffrey was only 
sixteen, and had a violent temper, it was not happy for Matilda 
herself. However, three sons were born of it, which was a source 
of pleasure to Henry. Shortly after the marriage, Henry's fears 
were removed by the death of William Clito. 

The last few years of his reign were uneventful, and Henry him- 
self died in 1135. He was a great king. His instinct made him 
do what was best for his people, who wanted nothing henry's death 
BO much as to be safe from the turbulence of the great ^^^ character, 
landowners. Under him commerce, which was fostered by the 



58 Norman Kings. [1135 

connection between England and the Continent, flourished, towns 

. sprang into importance, and the townsmen often 

state of the bought from the king a charter to allow them to 

owns. p^^ ^ fixed tax to the exchequer instead of having 

their payments assessed by the sheriff, a concession which added 

to their consequence, and was a great source of security to the 

traders against the injustice of the sheriffs. 

Henry was a scholar himself, and encouraged learning. He 
knew French, English, Latin, and perhaps Greek. Under him 
state of "t^® monasteries, many of which had been founded by 
learning, -tj^g Normans, became schools for the nobility. In 
them manuscripts were collected and copied, histories were written, 
and each little society of monks became in that rude age a centre 
of civilization and comparative refinement. 



CHAPTER rV. 

Stephen, 1135-1154 (19 years). 
Bom drc. 1094; married, 1124, Matilda of Boulogne. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — Matilda, Eoger of Salisbury, Henry of 
Winchester, Robert of Gloucester, Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury. 

When Henry was dead, all his schemes for the succession of his 
daughter fell to the ground. As yet no woman had ruled in 
England, and the Norman barons could ill brook the -crnpopuiarity 
reign of a woman; and more than that, Matilda was ofMatuda. 
the wife of the hated Angevin Geoffrey. Moreover, Matilda repre- 
sented the system of the Conqueror and his sons, which was 
distasteful to the barons, and accordingly they set aside the plan of 
Henry I., broke their oaths to Matilda, and chose a king to rule 
over them. 

Their choice fell upon Stephen, the son of Adela, daughter of 
William the Conqueror, by her husband the Count of Blois, one 
of the most notable of the Crusaders. Stephen had Election of 
been a great favourite of Henry I., who had made Stephen, 
him Earl of Leicester and enriched him with great possessions, so 
that he was regarded as the leading baron in England. On the 
death of Henry, which happened in Normandy, Stephen set off 
for England, and by the assistance of his brother Henry, Bishop of 
Winchester, on the plea that the late king had on his death-bed 
released the barons from their oaths, was elected king by the great 
men and by the Londoners. Meanwhile Matilda was trying to 
secure Normandy ; but her Angevin friends excited the hatred of 
the Normans, who readily accepted Stephen as their duke. Thus 
Stephen gained possession of both countries. 

Stephen was brave, energetic, handsome, and generous ; but he 



6o Norman Kings. [1135- 

was not the man to keep up the wise admmistration of the first 
Norman kings, and at the very outset he made mis- 

Stephen. takes which caused him endless difficulty afterwards. 

s mis a e . rji^ \q,q-^ a garrison in every castle, and only to allow 
new castles to be built by special hcence, had been one of the great 
objects of the Conqueror and his sons. Stephen foohshly allowed 
the nobles to build castles on their own lands, and the natural result 
was that a swarm of castles sprang up, and soon the king found 
it necessary to engage in a series of sieges in order to capture 
castles which, had it not been for himself, would never have 
existed. 

The first person to declare in favour of Matilda was Robert, 

Robert of Earl of Gloucester, a natural son of Henry I., and 

Gloucester, ^s he was soon joined by Milo of Hereford, a party 
for Matilda began to be formed in the west of England. 

The same year, 1138, that Robert of Gloucester declared for 
Matilda, her uncle, David King of Scots, another of her supporters, 
Invasion of the invaded the north of England. He advanced into 
Scots. Yorkshire, and was there met by an army of Norman 

knights and English footmen, which had been collected by the 
exertions of Thurstan, Archbishop of York. To encourage the 
soldiers, Thurstan allowed them to take with them the sacred banners 
of St. Peter, St. Wilfrid, and St. John of Beverley. These were 
placed on a car, and when the Scots attacked the English near 
Northallerton, they closed up round the car. No efforts of the 
Scots could break their ranks, and the victory which was thus won 
was called the "battle of the Standard." It was the first of the 
great victories gained by the north-country men of England over 
the Scots. 

Hitherto Stephen's best supporter had been his brother Henry, 

who enlisted the Church in his favour; but in 1139 Stephen 

offended the clergy by rashly attacking the justiciar 

Roger of Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, his son the chancellor, 

ury. ^^^ j^.^ nephews the Bishops of Lincoln and Ely, 

the last of whom was also treasurer, on the plea that they were 

favourable to Matilda. These prelates held several strong castles, 

and as they had in their hands the three great offices of state, they 

were very powerful. Stephen was successful in getting them into 



1151.] Stephen. 6i 

his power ; but it was foolish to alienate the Church, as he was 
thus left without support against his rival Matilda. 

Hearing of his mistake, Matilda came to England, and was allowed 
by Stephen, from an idea of the courtesy due to a lady, to join 
her half-brother and supporter, Eobert of Gloucester. ,, ^., , , 

^r ■) ^ Matilda's 

Her arrival kindled a civil war, of which most of arrival in 

the barons took advantage to shut themselves up in ^le-iand. 

their castles, and support themselves by the pillage of their 

neighbours. It was a terrible time for the English ; trade and 

agriculture were ruined, and it was said that God and His saints 

were asleep, so terrible were the v^ongs which were done in the 

land. Some barons made horrible things called „ .^, 

° TeiTible 

" sachentages," machines fitted with spikes, so that a cruelties of the 
man, when put in one, could neither stand, nor sit, 
nor lie, without pain. Others put their prisoners in noisome 
dungeons v^th rats and toads; others hung them up, and caused 
smoke to blow over them, so that they were all but choked. But 
some good came out of it all, for it taught the people that they must 
have a strong king who could keep the barons in check, so that 
these things should never be done again. 

The details of the war are unimportant. First Stephen was 
taken prisoner while besieging Eandolf, Earl of Chester, in Lincoln 
Castle. Then Kobert of Gloucester fell into the „ 

Varying 

hands of Stephen's queen, and was exchanged fortunes of the 
for Stephen. In 1141 Matilda was acknowledged 
as lady of the English ; but her insolence soon alienated the 
Londoners, and disgusted Henry, Stephen's brother, who had for 
a time taken her side. Then the tide turned against her, and she 
was so closely besieged by Stephen at Oxford, that she was only 
saved by dressing herself in white, and escaping at midnight over 
the ice. After a time she left England, and retired to Normandy. 

In 1151, Matilda's son Henry became, by the death of his father, 
Count of Anjou ; and the next year he made a lucky match with 
Eleanor, Duchess of Guienne, who had been divorced Henry of 
by Louis VII., King of France. From his mother he Anjou. 
had now obtained Normandy and Maine ; from his father, Anjou and 
Touraine ; and from his wife, Poitou, Saintonge, Limousin, Guienne, 
and Gascony. 



62 



Norman Kings. 



[1154. 



The movements of young Henry were viewed with suspicion by 
Stephen, who attempted to get the bishops to recognize his own 

Henry ac- SOU Eustace as his successor; but they, headed by 
knowiedgedas Ttieobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, refused to do 

Stephen's ' ^ ^•1T^^co 

successor. this, and soon afterwards Eustace died. In lloo 
Henry invaded England and renewed the war ; but, after his son's 
death, Stephen had little heart for the contest, and it was not 
hard to bring about an arrangement at Wallingford, by which 
Henry was recognized as the heir to the throne. The last year of 
Stephen's reign was occupied by an attempt to put a stop to some 
of the disorder which was going on in the kingdom, and in the 
midst of it Stephen died, in 1154, after an anarchy, rather than 
reign, which had lasted nineteen years. 



GENERAL EVENTS OF THE NORMAN PERIOD. 



Last Rebellion of the English against the Normans 
First Rebellion by Korman Barons 
Domesday Book compiled ... 

First Crusade 

Henry I.'s Charter 

Investiture dispute settled 

Roger of Salisbury begins to organize the Curia Regis 

Treaty of Wallingford 



... 1071 

... 1074 

... 1085 
1095-1099 

... 1100 

... 1107 

... 1107 

... 1153 



CHIEF BATTLES OF NORMAN PERIOD. 



Hastings... 
Tenchebrai 
Northallerton 



1066 
1106 
1138 



BOOK III 

THE EAELIEB ANGEVIN KINGS, SOMETIMES 
CALLED PLANTAGENETS 



ENGLAND "i 

AND 

SOUTHERN SCOTLAND 

to illustrate 
History from 1155 to 1603 




v.— THE EARLIER ANGEVIN KINGS, 1154-1272. 
Henry II. = Eleanor of Guienne, 



1154-1189. 


divorced wife of Louis VII. 


) 






d. 1204. 






= King 


Henrv, Ricliard I., Geof- = Con- John, = 


= Isa- 


Eleanor = 


d. 1183. 1189-1199. rey, 


stance 1199-1216. 


bella 




of 


d.ll86. 


of Brit- 


of An- 




Cas- 




tany. 


gou- 
leme. 




tile. 


Arthur, 




Blanche, 


d. 1203. 




m. Louis of 
France. 






(see"^ 


ni.). 


Henry III. = Eleanor Joan, Eleanor, 


. 1 
Richar( 


1216-1272. 


of Pro- m. Alexander m. Simon 


King of the 




vence. of Scotland. de Mont- 


Romans, 




fort. 


d. 1271. 



Edward I., Edmund Crouchback, Margaret, 

1272-1307. d. 1295. m. Alexander IIL 

(see VL). 



VI.— THE KINGS OF SCOTLAND FROM 1153-1286. 

Henry, Earl of Huntingdon (see IV.). 



Malcolm IV., 1153-1165. 



William the Lion, 1166-1214. 



Alexander II., = Joan, sister of Henry III. 
1214-1249. I 

Alexander III., 

m, Margaret, dau. of Henry III., 

1249-1286. 



YII,— KINGS OF FRANCE, 937-1285. 

Hugh Capet, 987-996. 

Kobert I., 996-1031. 

Henry I., 1031-1060. 

Philip I., 1060-1108. 

Louis VI., 1108-1187. 

Louis VII. = (1) Eleanor of Provence, 
1137-1180. divorced 1152. 

(2) Constance of Castile 

(3) Alice of Champagne 
Philip Augustus (3), 

1180-1223. 

Louis VIII. = Blanclie of Castile 



(invader of England 1216), 
1223-1226. 



(see v.). 
Louis IX. (Saint), 1226-1270. 



Philip III., 1270-1285. Robert, 

ancestor of tlie Bourbon kings (see V.). 



CHAPTER i. 

Heney II., 1154-1189 (55 years). 
Bom 1133; married, 1152, Eleanor of Guienne. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — Archbishop Theobald, Thomas Beckef^ 
Richard Fitz-Gilbert, Richard de Lucy, RanuLf Glanville, and William 
Mandeville. 

At his accession Henry II. was the monarch of greatest consequence 
in Europe. He ruled over England and South Wales, witli rights 
over the princes of north Wales and the kings of character of 
Scotland ; he was Duke of Normandy, and Count of Henry ii. - 
Anjou and Maine, and in right of his wife he possessed the great 
domains of the Dukes of Guienne, which, with his ancestral dominions, 
gave him a much larger share of modern France than was held by 
the kings of France of that day. Moreover, he was a man of vefy 
great ability, thoroughly versed in the arts of war and diplomacy, 
and a determined enforcer of the law. He had a sound mind in a 
sound body, delighted in the exercise of the chase, never sat down, 
but kept his courtiers walking till they were tired, and was a traveller 
so rapid that he astonished his contemporaries by the suddenness of 
his appearances. With aU these good qualities, Henry was terribly 
passionate, and sometimes, though usually cautious, would allow his 
temper to get the better of him, and to hurry him into actions or 
words which afterwards cost him dear. 

To sudh a man as this the disorder of Stephen's reign was 
abhorrent, and he began at once to clear away the abuses which 
had disgraced and well-nigh ruined the country. In pirst measures 
this work he was assisted by his chancellor^ Thomas °^ *^® reiem. 
Becket. Thomas was the son of a London merchant; but while 
young he Was brought under the notice of Theobald, character of 
Archbishop of Canterbury. He is said to have been Becket. 
educated at Merton, in Surrey, and afterwards situdied at Paris 



68 Early Angevin Kings. [1154- 

and Bologna. On his return to England, he was made by Theobald 
Archdeacon of Canterbury. It was Theobald who recommended 
Becket to Henry, and the king soon appreciated the energy and 
ability of his character, and made him Chancellor. 

The energy shown by Henry and Becket soon bore fruit. The 
foolish grants made of crown lands by Stephen and Matilda were 

Henry's resumed. The castles built in Stephen's reign were 

reforms. levelled to the ground ; the bad money issued from 
irregular mints was replaced by a good coinage ; and the bands of 
mercenaries who had fought for either side and plundered for them- 
■ selves, were driven from the country. At the same time, Henry 
insisted upon his sovereign rights ; forced Malcolm, King of Scots, 
to give up Cumberland and Northumberland, which had been held 
by the Scots during the last reign ; and drove his own brother 
Geoffrey from Anjou, to which he had set up a claim on Henry's 
becoming King of England. 

In 1159 Henry went to France to attack the county of Toulouse, 

which he claimed in right of his wife. In his attack on Toulouse 

War of Henry was accompanied by Becket, at the head of 

Toulouse. a band of soldiers. He succeeded in shutting up 
the count in Toulouse; but refrained from taking that town, 
because the King of France had come to the assistance of the 
count, and Henry thought it would be setting a bad example for his 
nobles if they saw him taking prisoner his own feudal superior. 

This expedition, however, though it was not of much importance 

in itself, had indirectly an immense effect on the subsequent progress 

Institution of of the English nation, by being the occasion of the 

scutage. institution of scutage. It was a rule of feudalism 
that a tenant was bound to follow his lord to the wars for forty 
days, in which the going and coming were not counted. Now, this 
might not be very serious when the king was making war on the 
Welsh or Scots, but when the English king called on his tenants- 
in-chief to follow him to Toulouse or Guienne, it was a very serious 
matter indeed. As the English kings were now holders of large 
possessions on the Continent, it was plain that such calls would put 
a very heavy strain upon the system ; so a new and most important 
practise was introduced, namely, that of commuting personal service 
with the king for a payment in money, called shield-money — scutage, 



1164.] Henry II, 69 

or escuage-— amounting to forty shillings on each knight's fee, or 
holding, which was bound to provide one horseman. Results of 
This had great results, for on the one hand it gave scutate, 
the king a sum of money with which he might hire volunteers to 
serve for him, and on the other it relieved the tenants-in-chief from 
a burden, and also had a tendency to make them less warlike, and 
therefore less dangerous, both to the kmg and the peaceable in- 
habitants of the country. 

This arrangement was probably due to Becket, and when Theobald, 
Archbishop of Canterbury, died, Henry thought that he could not 
do better than use his influence to get his chancellor, 

° 1 A T Becket made 

who had served him so well in the state, made Arch- Arciibisiiop of 
bishop of Canterbury. A difficulty had arisen about ^^ ^^ ^^^' 
the trial of clergymen. William the Conqueror had removed the 
bishop from the shire-moot, in which before the Conquest he had 
sat with the ealdorman, and given him a court of his own ; and 
from that time forward ecclesiastical cases were tried before the 
bishops and the archdeacons in their own courts. The question 
now arose whether clergymen who were accused of crime were to be 
tried by the bishop, or by the shire-moot like laymen. There was 
a very real difference between the two courts ; for 
the bishop's court could not inflict death, but only 
fine or imprisonment in a monastery, or deprive a man of his 
clerical orders. In those days there were no less than seven orders 
of clergy, so that, practically, every professional man who was not 
a regular soldier belonged in some extent to the clergy, and so, 
if clerics were to be exempt from the jurisdiction of the lay 
courts, it meant that all educated persons were to be punished, 
when they committed crime, with less severity than if they were 
ignorant. The clergy, however, feared that, if the king once got 
every criminal clergyman under the jurisdiction of lay courts, the 
clergy as a whole would lose their independence. Henry hoped 
that Becket would take his view, and help him to carry his reform. 
But Becket, when Archbishop of Canterbury, took a very different 
view of his duty towards his order to that which Henry expected, 
and entirely refused to give way. His idea seems to Becket's 
have been that if a clergyman were found guilty of proposal, 
murder, it would be sufficient punishment to unfrock him,, and then. 



7o Early Angevin Kings. [ueS' 

if he committed another, he would be a layman, and could be hanged 

as such. In other words, it took two murders to hang a clergyman, 

Henry's ^'^^ '^^^ to hang a layman. Henry's wish was that a 

proposal. clergyman, tried and convicted in the lay courts, should 
be unfrocked by the bishop, and handed back to the sheriff to be 
hanged or otherwise punished. 

A very flagrant case of under punishment had just occurred, so 
in 1163 Henry took advantage of it to take the matter in hand. A 
Constitutions ^^^^ of the laws relating to Church and State, known 
of Clarendon, ^s the Constitutions of Clarendon, was drawn up in 
1164, some of which were old and some new. Becket, who had at 
first been induced to accept this, afterwards withdrew his accepta- 
tion, and hurried from the kingdom to appeal to the pope. Henry 
insisted upon the Constitutions of Clarendon being enforced, and 
one of the chroniclers tells us that men might see the mournful 
spectacle of priests and deacons, who had committed murder and 
robbery and other crimes, dragged before the king's judges and 
executed just as if they had been ordinary men. For six years the 
struggle went on; but at last, in 1169, Becket and Henry patched 
up a renewal of friendship without exactly settling the question of 
the Constitutions, and Becket returned to England. 

Unfortunately, a new cause of offence had been given to Becket, 
Henry had desired to have his eldest son Henry crowned in his life- 
New duarrei time, after the German and French fashion, and, in 
witii Becket. Becket's absence, the ceremony was performed by 
Roger, Archbishop of York, who had long been Becket's rival. On 
his return, Becket excommunicated Roger and the bishops who had 
taken the king's side. This so annoyed Henry that he let fall the 
words, " Are there none of the cowards eating my bread who will 
rid me of this turbulent priest ? " 

Stung by the taunt, four knights in the service of the king 
hurried to Canterbury, and, after an angry interview with Becket, 

Murder of murdered him in the cathedral, 1170. No more 

Becket. wretched thing, both for Henry and for England, 

could have happened. Of course, Becket was looked on as a martyr, 

and it was out of the question to enforce the Con- 

T4-0 T^ftglll'tS 

stitutions of Clarendon, when every one said that 
miracles were bemg worked at the tomb of the man who had shed. 



1170.] Henry II. yi 

his blood ill detending the Church against them. For years the 
pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Thomas of Canterbury was the most 
popular event in English life, and it was only by very slow steps 
that the state gradually recovered the hold over the clergy and the 
Church which was lost by the fatal impatience of the murderers of 
Thomas Becket. 

During the time the struggle with Becket was going on, Henry 
had been engaged in reforming the administration of justice in the 
shire-moots, or county courts. The sheriff had since Reform of the 
the Conquest presided over the court of his county ; siiire-moot. 
but Henry, in 1166, began the practice of regularly itinerant 
sending two or more judges from the Curia Kegis to -"^ ^°®** 
sit in the county courts. These judges were called justices in eyre, 
i.e. justices on journey, and their journeys were arranged in regular 
circuits, which underwent little change down to quite recent times. 

When the county court met, twelve knights from each hundred 
and four men from each township presented to the judges such 
men as were notorious murderers or robbers, or re- orig-in of the 
ceivers of such. The judge then ordered these men grand jury, 
to be put to the ordeal. If they were found guilty, they were 
punished by hanging or otherwise ; and even if they were innocent 
by the ordeal, it was thought that they must be good-for-nothing 
fellows, so they were ordered to leave the country. The body of 
sixteen men formed a sort of Grand Jury, who presented persons 
believed to be criminals to the judges, but their guilt or innocence 
was determined by the ordeal. 

Some years later, in 1215, a Lateran Council, held at Eome by Pope 
Innocent III., forbade the use of the ordeal. It was then necessary 
to replace the ordeal by a little, or petty jury. This origin of the 
consisted of twelve sworn men, who were taken from petty jury, 
the neighbourhood where the crime was committed, and were 
supposed to know the facts of the case. If they did not agree 
others were added, till twelve gave a verdict one way or another. 
At a later date the additional jurymen only gave evidence 
before the original twelve, who gave the verdict on the evidence 
of the witnesses, as is done at present. As the petty jury- 
was a substitute for the ordeal, the prisoner could not speak in 
his own defence, and till modern times he could not even call 



72 Early Angevin Kings. [1170- 

witnesses in his behalf; but it was assumed that he was innocent 
unless the jury were certain that he was guilty. The improved 
method of holding the county courts was introduced by the Assize 
of Clarendon in 1166, and carried further by the Assize of North- 
ampton in 1176. 

During Henry's reign an important change had been made in the 
way of conducting the trial of civil cases. In Old English times 
Origin of tiie these cases had been decided by the oaths of persons 
civil jTiry„ -^j^q knew the facts, such as where the boundary of 
an estate in dispute ran, or who owned a certain wood ; but the 
Normans introduced the trial by battle, in which such questions 
were decided by the issue of a combat between the suitors or their 
representatives. Such a decision was obviously most unfair, and 
the practice was much disliked, so the plan was introduced of de- 
ciding such cases by the oaths of a jury of sworn men. This jury 
was a civil jury, and must be distinguished from the grand and petty 
juries in criminal cases. 

During the Becket struggle a step was made towards the con- 
quest of Ireland. After the Northmen had settled in Normandy 
Cause of the many adventurers sought for themselves settlements 
settlement of ^^^ kinffdoms elsewhere. One Norman became 

Norraansin ° 

Ireland. Prince of Apulia, another King of Sicily ; many had 
joined in the Crusades, and one, William the Conqueror, had become 
King of England. Many had won estates in England and Wales ; 
others, like the Bruces and Balliols, held property in Scotland ; so 
it was only natural that Norman knights should interfere in the 
quarrels of the Irish chiefs, and try to win for themselves lands in 
fir 1 d *^^* country, Ireland, in the time of Henry II., was 
in the twelfth in much the same state that England had been in the 

cen ury. ^.^^ ^^ ^^ Heptarch}!^ ; it was divided into a number 
of small kingdoms, presided over by a head king, called the Ardriagh, 
In Dublin and the towns on the eastern coast lived the Ostmen, or 
Norwegian settlers, who settled in the country during the tenth and 
eleventh centuries. Ireland was Christian, and many of its clergy 
had been distinguished for their learning ; but its Christianity was of 
the Celtic type, which had been rejected by the English at the Synod 
of Whitby. 

At the beginning of his reign, Henry had taken advantage of tho 



1173.] Henry I J, 73 

papacy of a great Englishman, Nicolas Breakspear, to obtain from 
him a bull authorizing him to conquer Ireland, and 
bring the practices of the Irish Church into accordance of conauering 
with those of the rest of Europe ; but he had never Ireland, 
had time to act upon it. However, in 1169 three Normans of Pem- 
brokeshire, Kichard Fitz-Gilbert, surnamed Strongbow, 

' \ ^ 07 Invasion of 

Eobert Fitz- Stephen, and Maurice Fitz-Gerald, took Ireland by the 
the part of Dermot, King of Leinster, who had been ormans. 
expelled from his kingdom. He landed in Ireland with a small 
body of men, obtained a footing in the country, and conquered 
Dublin and a good part of the east coast. Henry condemned their 
action, but insisted on sharing the spoil, and in 1171, just after 
Becket's murder, he went over to Ireland, and his supremacy was 
acknowledged by the chiefs. His son John was afterwards nomi- 
nated Lord of Ireland in 1177 ; but the English with difficulty main- 
tained their ground in the counties round Dublin, which were called 
the English pale, and the real conquest of Ireland did not take place 
till the time of the Tudors. 

The years 1173 and 1174 were marked by a great combination of 
Henry's enemies, who attempted to defeat him by a simultaneous 
attack in England and on the Continent. It was now _, 

° ^ ^ Causes of the 

one hundred years since the first rebellion of the barons' dis- 
barons against William the Conqueror, and the struggle 
had been going on ever since. During the reign of Stephen the 
barons had done pretty much what they liked, with what results we 
have noticed; but under Henry II. they had been losing ground, 
while the king, strong in the support of the middle classes, and 
of the soldiers he hired with the scutage money, and helped by 
able men, such as Richard de Lucy, William Mandeville, and Ranulf 
GlanviUe, was rapidly bringing the kingdom into thoroughly good 
order. 

Accordingly, in 1173, the barons took advantage of a quarrel which 
had arisen between the king and his sons, Henry, Richard, and 
Geoffrey, to construct a general league against Henry ; 
and into this alliance entered Louis of France, to 
whose court the young Henry had fled, the Count of Flanders, the 
King of Scotland, and the disaffected barons of England and Nor- 
mandy. The plan was to invade England and Normandy simul- 



74 Early Angevin Kings. [1173- 

fcaneously ; but Henry was on his guard, and beat the French, and 
Bretons in Normandy, while Kichard de Lucy and Wilham Mande- 
ville routed the barons of England. Henry's difficulties were not yet 
over ; the Scots invaded England, and Hugh Bigod, Earl of Norfolk, 
was still in arms in the eastern counties. So great was the crisis, 
that Henry thought it good to come to England and do penance at 
the tomb of Becket, lest any should still regard him as under a 
murderer's curse. To his great joy, however, he heard that the 
very day he was on his knees at Canterbury, William the Lion, 
Capture of the Ki^g of Scots, had been captured at Alnwick; and 
King- of Scots, gjiortly afterward, the barons who were in arms in 
Norfolk were put down, and this, the last attempt of the barons to 
make themselves independent of the crown, was at an end. 

Henry took advantage of the captivity of the King of Scots to 
Treaty witii Hiake him not only do homage for the kingdom of 

Scotland. Scotland, but also put the castles of Lothian in English 
hands, by the treaty of Falaise, made 1174. 

The remaining years of Henry's reign were occupied with com- 
pleting his reforms in England and quarrelling with his sons on the 
_ - , Continent. In 1178 he made a change in the Curia 

Development _ ° _ 

of tiie Curia Eegis, which was a great step in developing our judicial 

system. We saw that when the Curia Eegis was 

dealing with the revenue, it was called the court of exchequer. In 

this year a selection of five judges was made from those of the Curia 

Eegis, who sat as a court to hear cases, and this court before long 

developed into the two courts of King's Bench and Common Pleas. 

In theory the court of King's Bench tried cases in which the king 

was concerned, which were called pleas of the crown ; the court of 

Common Pleas tried cases between one subject and another. From 

each of these courts there was an appeal to the king in the Ordinary 

Council. 

The last great measure of Henry was the assize of arms. Before 

the Conquest, every free man from sixteen to sixty had been hable 

to serve in thefyrd, or militia, and afterwards, though' 
Assize of arms. , , p t , i i i . , 

the leudal array had been more promment, the fyrd 

had been called out to fight against the Scots at Northallerton, 

against the Welsh, against Eobert of Belleme, and on many other 

occasions. However, since the institution of scutago, Henry had 



11890 Henry II. 75 

used the feudal obligation as a means rather of raising money than 
soldiers, so he determined to organize the militia anew. Accordingly, 
in 1181, an assize of arms was issued, which regulated the national 
fyrd, or militia, stated what arms each freeman was to possess 
according to his wealth, and arranged for the inspection of these 
arms at regular intervals. In this way the king had two armies — 
one a small one of paid troops, whom he hired to garrison his castles 
and fight his battles on the Continent; the other the militia, on 
whom he relied for the defence of England against foreign foes, or 
for putting down insurrection at home. Only freeholders were 
allowed to serve in the militia. 

In 1187, news was brought to Europe that Jerusalem had again 
fallen into the hands of the Mahomedans. The small Turkish states, 
which had been singly no match for the Christians, ^^ ^^^ ^^ 
had been united by Saladin into one great power, Jerusalem by 
which stretched from the Euphrates to the Nile, and 
before its strength the Christians of Jerusalem were defeated in the 
battle of Tiberias, and Jerusalem was lost. The news stirred Europe 
to its depths. The Emperor Frederick Barbarossa started to the 
relief of the Christians ; and Henry had such thoughts of following 
him, that he collected from his subjects a tenth of their goods, which 
was called the Saladin tithe. This tax is notable r^j^g saiadin 
because it was the first laid, like an income tax, on Tithe, 
personal property, all previous taxes having been laid on land only. 

The quarrels between Henry and his sons, however, prevented 
him from going to the East. His eldest son Henry had died in 1183, 
but Richard was in arms against his father with Philip of France. 
They drove Henry from Touraine and reduced him to great straits. 
Henry stiU relied on the good wiU of his youngest son John; but, on 
peeing his name among a list of noblemen who had joined the French 
king, he had no heart to continue the struggle, and died, we may 
almost say of a broken heart, in 1189. 



CHAPTER n. 

RiCHAKD L, 1189-1199 (10 years). 
Born 1157; married, 1191, Berengaria of Navarre. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — William Longchamp, Walter of Coutance, 
Hugh of Avalon, Hubert Walter, and Geoffrey Fitz-Peter. 

On the death, of his father, Richard became king without opposition. 
His chief wish was to lead a crusade and win glory in the Holy 
Preparations Land, and he looked upon England as only useful to 
for a crusade, provide the money for that end. Accordingly, he sold 
all the offices of state in England, and for the sum of ten thousand 
marks gave up the concessions which William the Lion had made 
to Henry H. at the treaty of Falaise, and so restored the relations 
between the King of England and the King of Scots in the same 
uncertain condition as they had been before that treaty. 

As was usual when people were filled with crusading zeal, the 
Jews suffered from persecution. In England this people were re- 
persecutions of girded as the king's property, and, being taxed by him 

the Jews. ^^ ^^^ Were a source of great wealth to him. But, as 
most of their money was made by money-lending, they were hated 
by the borrowers, who were glad to take advantage of any excuse 
to attack them. Accordingly, when Richard took the lead in exact- 
ing money from the Jews for the Crusade, a general attack and 
massacre followed, and London, York, Norwich, with other great 
towns were the scenes of great atrocities. "When Richard had got as 
much money as he wanted, he left England, and prepared to set out 
for the East. 

In Richard's absence the government of England was entrusted 
^ . to William Longchamp, the Chancellor, who became 

Qovemment in _ or? 7 

Riciiard's Justiciar and Papal Legate, so that he held in his 

own hands the chief civil and ecclesiastical authority. 

To satisfy his younger brother John, of whom he was extremely 



1189.] Richard I. 77 

suspicious, Richard, entirely neglecting the policy of William the 
Conqueror, made him earl of territories which amounted to almost 
a third of the kingdom, but exacted an oath from him that he would 
never come to England. John does not seem to have expected 
his brother back again from the wars, and acted as if he might at 
any time become king. In this he was helped by Geoffrey, Arch- 
bishop of York, a natural son of Henry II. ; and the two raised the 
barons against Longchamp, who was expelled, and retired to Nor- 
mandy. Longchamp's place was taken by Walter of Coutance, 
Archbishop of Eouen, who brought letters of authority from Richard, 
and conducted the government of the country till he was succeeded 
by Hubert Walter, Archbishop of Canterbury, the nephew of Ranulf 
Glanville, who had been justiciar under Henry II. 

Meanwhile Richard had travelled by sea to Sicily, where he met 
his ally, Philip of France, at the court of Tancred, King of Sicily, 
who was himself a Norman. There Richard was Riciiarci's 
married to Berengaria of Navarre, and thence he adventiires. 
sailed to Cyprus, which he captured in revenge for the murder of 
some shipwrecked sailors. He then went to Acre, where he found 
Philip of France. Acre is a seaport town not far 
from Mount Carmel, and commands the coast of 
Syria. It had fallen into the hands of the Mahomedans, and 
was besieged by the Christians, who were themselves attacked 
by Saladin ; so it was difficult to say who were the besieged and 
who the besiegers. The energy of Richard carried all before 
him, and the city was taken 1191 ; but Richard, though brave 
and energetic, was not the man to weld together so motley a 
troop of fighting men as composed a crusading army, and he 
found it impossible to form the siege of Jerusalem, from which 
he had to retreat. Philip of France, on the plea of ill health, had 
already gone home, and Richard, hearing that on his return he was 
planning with John an attack upon his dominions, set off home with 
a few followers. Unfortunately, Richard was Wrecked in the Adriatic, 
and, while trying to make his way home by land, was recognized, and 
fell into the hands of his personal enemy, Leopold, Richard's 
Bake of Austria, who handed him over to the emperor, captivity, 
Henry VI. As soon as Richard's captivity was known, John did 
homage to Philip for Normandy 5 but Eleanor, Richard's mother, 



fS Eai'ty Angevin Kings, [iid9. 

and the chief English ministers, made the greatest exertions to 
secute their king's release, which was at length effected, at the cost 
of one hundred thousand pounds paid to the emperor. 

In 1194 Kichard was at liberty and came back to England. He 

raised more money by sale and extortion, while, to secure himself 

^^, against being thought to have lost dignity by his im- 

return to prisonment, he was crowned a second time. He then 

ng an . j^^^ England, after a visit of two months, and spent 

the remainder of his life in making war upon Philip of France and 

his rebellious vassals, though he kept on comparatively good terms 

with his brother John. 

The exactions which Hubert Walter had to make to supply the 

king with money for these wars caused a great deal of discontent, 

« ^ „. ^ and in 1195 the poorer citizens of London, com- 

RebeUion of ^ . ^ ' 

"W'iniam Fitz- plaining that they had to pay too large a share of the 

taxes due from the city, broke out into rebellion 

under William Fitz-Osbert, but were easily crushed. In 1198 

Hugh of Avalon, Bishop of Lincoln, was successful in refusing to 

Resistance to P^^ money to Support the war in France, which is the 

taxation. gj-gf; j-gal instance of successful resistance to taxation. 

The same year Hubert Walter retired, and Geoffrey Fitz-Peter 

became justiciar. 

A year later Kichard himself was kiUed while besieging the 

castle of a petty knight, who was the possessor of some treasure to 

Rictiard's which Richard thought he had a claim. Richard's 

deatiii reign of ten years, of which but a twentieth part was 

the reign. spent in England, was very useful to the nation, 

because it gave time for the legal and administrative reforms of 

Henry 11. to get into working order, and to take a firm hold upon 

the country. Richard was extolled as the ideal of a feudal knight. 

He was certainly brave, but his selfishness, cruelty, and vanity 

deprive him of all claim to respect. 



CHAPTER ni. 

Jomr, 1199-1216 (17 years). 
„ ^^^„ . , / 1189, Hadwisa of Gloucester (divorced). 

Bomllo7; married, { 1200, Isabella of Angouleme. 

Chief Characters of the Reign.— Ruhert Walter, Geoffrey Fitz-Peter, Stephen 
Langton, William Marshall, Earl of Pembroke, and Peter des Roches. 

When Eichard was dead there were two candidates for the crown 
of England. One was Arthur, the son of Geoffrey, Kichard's next 
brother, who had died before him ; the other was John, Election of 
the youngest son of Henry II. Philip of France was '^°^^- 
expected to support Arthur, and to his court Arthur fled ; but Philip 
at that moment was quarrelling with the pope about a wife that he 
wished to put away, and could give him no active assistance. The 
throne, therefore, fell to John. In France no one worked harder for 
him than his mother Eleanor, who wished to keep together all the 
dominions over which she and Henry ll. had ruled, and for that 
reason always supported that one of her sons who she thought was 
most likely to effect this. In England he had the support of Arch- 
bishop Hubert, Geofirey Fitz-Peter, the old ministers of Richard, and 
of William Marshall, Earl of Pembroke. These statesmen held a 
meeting of the chief men at Nottingham, where John was chosen 
king, the uncle of fall age being preferred, according to the old 
Enghsh practice, to the nephew who was a minor. After a solemn 
admonition from the archbishop, John was crowned, and made 
Hubert his first Chancellor. After a very slight effort on his behalf 
Philip gave up the claims of Arthur, and made peace with John, 
while he compelled Arthur as Duke of Brittany to do homage to 
John. 

John might now have etijoyed an honourable and prosperous 



8o Early Angevin Kings, [ii89- 

reign; but his character was so bad, and his imprudence led him 
Joiin's to act so foolishly, that he not only lost for England 
prospects. most of her continental possessions, but only saved 
himself by dying from losing his crown. 

John's first mistake was to divorce his wife, Hadwisa of Gloucester, 

who was related to some of the strongest of the English barons, 

^. ^ and then to marry Isabella of Angouleme, who was 

Divorce and •' ° ' 

re-marriage of betrothed to the Earl of March, one of the most 
powerful of the nobles of France. In this way he 
contrived to irritate against himself the nobility both of his English 
and Continental dominions. 

This quarrel led him to oppress some of the nobles of Poitou ; 
they in due form appealed to their feudal superior, the King of 

^r -x-,- France, and Philip summoned John to Paris to be 

Warwitli . 

Phnipand tried by his peers. John refused to go, and Philip 

^' and Arthur attacked his dominions. In the war, 

while Arthur was besieging his grandmother Eleanor, in the castle 

of Mirabel, he was captured by John, and then all trace of him was 

lost. John was held responsible for his death, and the French king 

again summoned John to Paris to be tried for this new offence. 

Again John refused to go, and Philip seized the occasion to attack 

Normandy. John was too lazy to bestir himself. The result of the 

fighting was that Philip made himself master of all 

Normally, ' the Strong places in Maine, Normandy, Anjou, and 

Anjou, and: Touraine, and the English were compelled to evacuate 

Tovirame. ' ° ^ 

the territories which had been handed down to them 
from William the Conqueror and Geoffrey of Anjou. 

Deatiiof The next year, 1205, John lost another of his 

^^^Hubert*^ °^ supporters in Hubert Walter, whose death unfortu- 

"Waiter. nately involved him in a quarrel with the pope. 

There were two parties who claimed to elect the Archbishop of 

Canterbury — the monks of the ancient monastery of Canterbury, and 

Election of an the suffragan bishops of the province. In this instance 

archbisiiop. -^j^e monks were divided among themselves, for the 

younger monks named Eeginald, their sub-prior, and sent him to 

Rome to obtain his pallium from the pope. Reginald was told to go 

as quietly as possible ; but, on reaching the Continent, he assumed 

all the state of an archbishop-elect, and, the secret being out, the 



1213.] John, 8 1 

elder monks then chose John de Grey, Bishop of Norwich, who 
had been suggested by the king. A deputation of the elder monks 
then went to Rome to press the claims of De Grey, while the 
suffragan bishops {i.e. those bishops who belonged to the province of 
Canterbury) put in a claim to have a voice in the election. The 
Pope, Innocent III., set aside both elections, and persuaded the 
electors to agree upon Stephen Langton, an Englishman at the 
papal court, who had distinguished himself in many ecclesiastical 
capacities. 

This threw John into a rage, and he refused to receive Langton. 
The pope replied by putting the country under an interdict, which 
forbade services to be held in the churches, and only „ ^ 
allowed them to be held in the chapels of the Knights under an 
Templars. John cared little about the interdict, and 
retaliated by attacking the Church property, and even chose this as 
the best moment to march to the north and receive, from the Kin^ 
of Scots, such homage as was received before the treaty of Falaise. 

Finding John obdurate, the pope excommunicated him in person, 
and in revenge John seized the property of the bishops. The pope's 
next step was to depose John, and call on Philip to john ex- 
do the work of deposing him. This was no empty communicated, 
threat; for the Welsh, taking advantage of the pope's permission, 
made a raid on the border counties, and Philip collected a fleet and 
armj'- to invade the southern coast in 1211. 

It was clear to John that, unless he could divide his enemies, he 
would be lost, so he determined to make the pope his friend, 
and by an artful movement put himself on the same , , . ^^ 

*' ^ , , , John wins the 

side as the wielder of excommunication. The price pope to Ms 
the pope demanded was high, but John did not ^^ ®' 

shrink, and he actually, in 1213, agreed to hold England as a fief 
of the papacy, and to pay the pope a thousand marks a year, 
as an acknowledgment of his position. 

The success of this move was apparently great. The pope with- 
drew his sentence of deposition, and forbade Philip to continue the 
enterprise, while the English fleet put to sea, and invasion of 
inflicted a severe defeat on the French at Damme. Trance 
Elated by his success, John determined to invade ^ *^^^ 
France ; but his barons refused to follow him till he had fulfilled the 



82 Early Angevin Kings. [1214- 

conditions of his treaty witli the pope. At this moment Geoffrey 
Fitz-Peter died, and was succeeded as justiciar by Peter des Roches, 
Bishop of Winchester, a Poitevin. 

When John had been freed from his sentence of excommunication 

the barons again refused to follow him to France, on the plea that 

their term of service was expired, and while John was 

Barons deter- ^ ; *• i • v 

mine to de- away they held a series of meetings, at one of which 
man ac ar er. i^d^wgiQTi^ who, contrary to the expectation of the 
pope, was taking the side of the barons, read to them the charter 
of Henry I., and they determined to demand something of the 
kind from John. 

Meanwhile John was fighting in Poitou ; but the real seat of war 

was Flanders, where Otto, John's nephew, the emperor, William 

■War in Poitou ^^'^ ^f Salisbury, John's half-brother, and the Count 

and Flanders, of Flanders Were advancing against Philip. The 

Ruin of John's forces of the allies, however, suffered a complete 

plans by tlie ' , - ^ . i • i 

battle of defeat at the battle of Bouvmes, 1214, which com- 
pletely shattered John's hopes of revenging himself on 
Philip, and forced him to return home to face the anger of his barons. 
He found the barons determined to demand their rights ; and, 
indeed, they had bound themselves with a solemn oath to levy war 
John prepares ^po^ the king till they were successful. John put 
to resist the them off with a promise to answer their demands at 
„ ,.^ ' Easter, and meanwhile he did what he could to 

Fortifies ' .^ 

castles. strengthen himself for the struggle. He fortified his 

Hires castles: brought over foreign mercenaries from Poitou 
mercenaries. . ' . , . _. . , i 

« ^ ^ ~ and Flanders : made a desperate effort to wm back 

Grants freedom ' ^ 

of election to Langton and the clergy, by granting freedom of 

c erg-y. gjection to episcopal sees and monasteries : de- 
Demands an , 
oath of manded an oath of allegiance from every freeman 

aUegiance. throughout England; and put himself under the 

.especial protection of the Church, by taking the cross as a Crusader. 

The barons, however, were too strong for him. Mustering their 

forces in the midlands, they marched to London, and were well 

received by the citizens. John found himself deserted 
John s deffeat. . 

on all sides, and, brought to bay at last, was obliged, 

at Runnymede, to agi'ee to the demands of the barons on June 

15, 1215. 



1215.] John. 83 

The demands of the barons, to which John now gave his assent, 

form the Great Charter. This document contains a large number 

of clauses, and deals with the Church, the baronage, 

the collection of aids and scutages, the administra- ^^^^ * *" 

tion of justice, purveyance,^ trade, and a variety of other points, 

some of permanent and some of only temporary interest. The 

most important of John's concessions were these : — 

The Church was secured in the enjoyment of all 

. . . TheChurcli, 

its rights, including John s concession of free election. 

The feudal dues of the barons were fixed at a regular rate, in 
proportion to the land held, and the rights of wardship and 
marriage were made less galling. No aids or scutages 

,, iiii-n 1 . The barons. 

were to be collected by the king from the tenants-m- ^^^g ^^^ 
chief except the three ordinary ones (to ransom the scutages. 
lord's body, for the knighting of his eldest son, and for ®^ ^ ^®^' 
the first marriage of his eldest daughter) . Any other aids or scutages 
were to be voted by a council of prelates and „ 

•' IIP! Great council 

greater barons, summoned separately, and of lesser of feudal 
barons and tenants-in-chief, summoned by writ, *"*^ ^* 
addressed to the sheriff in the county court. 

As we have seen, the higher courts of the country were developed 
from the Curia Kegis. This court went with the king wherever he 
might happen to go, which was a great source of justice, 
trouble to the suitors, who might have to travel from ^ court of 

' ° ^ Comni on Pleas 

one end of England to another before their case had fixed, 
been heard. To remedy this, it was arranged that the Com-t of 
Common Pleas was to stay at a certain fixed place. This place was 
Westminster, where lay one of the king's chief 

... Justices in 

palaces. It was also settled that the justices in eyre, 

evre were to make their circuits four times a year, Justice not to 

*' 1 be delayed 

so that suitors should not be kept waiting. The or sold, 
king promised that he would not sell, refuse, or defer No freeman to 
right or justice to any one. More than all, that no without trial 
freeman was to be imprisoned, outlawed, punished, ^^^^ tti*^^^^ 
or molested, except by the judgment of his equals or 

* Purveyance was the right which the king exercised of providing for 
his household on a journey. This was done by forcing people to sell what 
the king wanted at nominal prices. 



84 Early Angevin Kings. iisis. 

by the law of the land, i.e, by the decision of a jury, by trial by 
battle, or by ordeal. 

An attempt was made to get rid of abuses in the system of 
Purveyance purveyance, but as the king still retained the right of 
reformed. pre-emption, that is of buying a thing if he needed 
it, there was plenty of room left for abuse. 

Merchants were to come and go freely in the kingdom — ^there were 
to be no passports ; and, finally, the barons and clergy 
agreed that every liberty which the king had granted 
to his tenants should be observed by them to theirs. 

No sooner was the Charter agreed to than John set about freeing 
himself from his oath. For this purpose he trusted to the assistance 
. , of the pope, while, to prepare himself for a new cam- 

to annul tiie paign, he began to hire fresh mercenaries abroad. 
Innocent did not disappoint him, but took his side 
with vigour, threatened to excommunicate the barons for levying 
war upon a Crusader, and for exacting concessions detrimental to 
the honour of the Holy See, and finally suspended Langton from the 
exercise of his functions. Meanwhile John was harrjang the estates 
of the barons with fire and sword, and he crossed the border to 
ravage Scotland, whose young king Alexander had taken the side of 
the barons. The atrocities of John's foreign mercenaries were ter- 
rible ; they turned the country through which they passed into a desert. 
^ At last the barons determined to offer the crown to the eldest son 
of Philip of France, Louis, and his wife Blanche of Castile, grand- 
Barons cau on <^^^g^^6^ ^f Henry H. Louis accepted the crown, and, 
Louis of landing at Sandwich, marched on London, where he 
was received with enthusiasm by the barons. The 
young prince made a very good impression, and won popularity by 
making Simon Langton, the brother of the archbishop, his 
chancellor, and the King of Scots came to Dover to do him homage. 
Meanwhile John and his mercenaries marched north and captured 
Lincoln and Lyim ; but, in returning to Lincolnshire, John had the 
John's misfortune to lose all the baggage of his army, con- 
misfortunes taining his jewels and money, which were swallowed 
up by the tide while crossing the Wash. That night 
he fell into a fever, and with difficulty reached Newark, where he 
died, on October 19, 1216. 



CHAPTEE rV. 

Heney III., 1216-1272 (56 years). 
Bom 1207 ; married, 1236, Eleanor of Provence. 

Chief Characters of the Eeign. — Stephen Langton, William Marshall, Hubert 
de Burgh, Falkes de Breaute', Peter des Roches, Richard Earl of Corn- 
wall, Robert Grossetete, Simon de Montfort, and Gilbert Earl of 
Gloucester. 

At the moment when John died, Louis of France appeared to 
have every chance of winning the kingdom ; he was supported by 
the most powerful of the barons, and had received prospects of 
the homage of the King of Scotland and the Prince Henry, 
of Wales ; but matters were changed by the death of the king. It 
had been John's character which had driven his subjects to rebel, 
while the innocence of the young king, now only in his tenth year, 
called for the protection of all loyal men. It took time, however, 
for a new royal party to be formed, and at first the supporters of 
the king were outnumbered by those of Louis. 

Henry's most powerful supporters were William Marshall, Earl of 
Pembroke, who was made regent, Peter des Koches, and Gualo, the 
papal legate. These three represented, respectively, 
the English, the foreign supporters of John, and the 
overlordship of the pope, and they formed a council to conduct the 
affairs of the young king. 

The first thing to be done was to get rid of Louis ; but the decisive 
battle was not fought till May, 1217, when Louis' forces were over- 
thrown at a battle fought in the streets of Lincoln, _ 

^ . . , Defeat of Louis 

which was commonly called Lincohi Fair. Louis still at Lincoln and 
hoped to get assistance from France ; but a fleet of ^^ ^^° ' 
eighty ships which was bringing it was defeated off Sandwich by 
Hubert de Burgh, who, though he only had forty vessels, managed 



86 Early Angevin Kings. [1217- 

by a clever manoeuvre to get to the windward of the French, and 
then his sailors grappled the ships of the enemy, while they threw 
quicklime in the eyes of the crews, and so completed their dis- 
comfiture. These two defeats secured the departure of Louis, and 
gave the regent time to take measures for the good government 
of the kingdom. 

Magna Carta had already been published, but all the clauses of 

Magna Carta ^ temporary nature had been omitted, and also those 

repubUshed. about aids and scutages, and the summoning of the 

council of archbishops, bishops, earls, and greater and lesser barons. 

New council of I^i 1219, WilHam Marshall, the great Earl of Pem- 

reg-ency. broke, died, and the government then fell into the 

hands of Peter des Roches, Pandulf the legate, and Hubert de Burgh. 

The great object of the Government was to re-establish security for 

life and property, and remove the disorders which had been created 

Reforms of the ^7 ^^^ Struggle against John. The chief obstacles to 

regents. ^(^yi: designs wcre the representatives of the turbulent 

barons of the Conquest, and the foreigners who had been bought into 

the country by John. The leaders of these two 

Turbulent . . 

nobles put classcs were WiUiam of Aum^le, who was obliged to 
^''^^' submit in 1221, and Falkes de Breaute. Falkes had 
been the leader of John's foreign mercenaries, he had become 
sheriff of six counties, and he was in possession of several strong 
castles. So lawless was he, that he actually imprisoned one of the 
king's judges because he had condemned him to pay damages 
at the assizes at Dunstable. But the capture of his castle of Bed- 
ford broke his power, and he was expelled from the country in 
1224. 

The early years of this reign were distinguished by the first 

attempt by the pope to raise a regular revenue from the clergy of 

Papal England. Already he received one thousand marks 

exactions. g^ yg^r as overlord ; but, besides that, he wished to 
make the English clergy contribute to the support of his court, 
partly by making them pay a direct tax, partly by pajdng his 
servants by giving them livings in England. At first he tried to get 
both laity and clergy to pay. The laity, however, refused, but the 
clergy had to give up to the pope a tenth of their yearly income, 
and the first year's emoluments of all benefices. These sums were 



1232.] Henry III. 87 

called annates and firstfruits ; the granting of livings was called 
provisors or provisions. 

In 1227 Henry, who was then twenty, declared himself of age to 
govern, and continued Hubert de Burgh in the office of justiciar. 
This statesman ruled well; he was the last of the Henry comes 
men who, Kke Hubert Walter and Geoffrey Fitz- of age. 
Peter, had been trained in the system of Henry II. Hubert de 
During four years of his rule Peter des Koches, his Burgh, 
rival, was away on a crusade, but in 1231 he returned, and im- 
mediately begun to plot the fall of Hubert. The justiciar had many 
enemies, and he is said to have used his power to increase his own 
wealth ; so Peter des Koches had little difficulty in forming a party 
against him, and won over the king to his views. 

Henry, like many weak persons, was unscrupulous when roused, 
so he attacked Hubert with fury, flung him into prison, and 
stripped him of his wealth and offices : and when 

, ^^. -, -, 1 . , 1 Fall of Hubert. 

the prisoner escaped and took sanctuary in a church, 

he had a moat dug round it and starved Hubert into surrender. 

The fall of Hubert de Burgh took place in 1232 ; he was the last 

of the great justiciars who had acted as the king's chief ministers 

since the time of William Kufus. After his time the Chancellor 

(see note, p. 56) became the most important of the king's 

officers. 

After Hubert's fall Henry took the conduct of affairs into his own 
hands, and twenty-six years of bad government followed. A 
considerable change had come over the state of affairs Henry's 
since the death of John. William the Conqueror government, 
and Henry II. had found a great source of their power in their 
wealth, which arose partly from the large number of manors in the 
king's hands, and partly because they had been practically able to 
levy aids and scutages at will. The extravagance of Richard and 
John, however, had stripped the crown of a large part of its posses- 
sions, while, although the clauses about aids and scutages had been 
omitted when the Great Charter was republished, the king had found 
it in practice impossible to levy these taxes without the consent of 
his tenants. Hence the king was continually pressed Poverty of 
for money, and there were special causes in Henry's *^® ^^^^• 
case which produced a constant drain upon his lightened purse. 



SS Early Angevin Kings. [1232- 

In the first place, Peter des Eoches was surrounded by a group of 
Poitevins who obtained oflBces from Henry through the influence 
Greediness of of their fellow-countryman. The favour shown to the 

fav?urSs. Poitevins instantly caused the nobles to form an op- 

Poitevins. position, at the head of which was Eichard Marshall, 
the second son of the late regent, who, unhappily, was soon killed 
in Ireland by treachery. Edmund Eich, Archbishop of Canterbury, 
then took the lead, and matters had come to the point of civil war 
when the dismissal of Peter des Eoches and his friends removed the 
grievance of the barons. 

Unfortunately, the Poitevins were not the only persons who 

thought they had a claim to Henry's bounty ; in 1236 the king 

married Eleanor of Provence, and her uncles, William 
Provencals. i. o 

of Valence, Boniface of Savoy, and Peter of Savoy, 

arrived in England with a troop of Provengals, and soon obtained 
as large a share of the revenue as the Poitevins had done. Then 
Isabella of Angouleme, Henry's mother, who had married Hugh de 
Half-brothers 1^ Marche and had a numerous family, sent over 
of the king. Henry's half-brothers, including another, William of 
Valence, to push their fortunes in England, and brought with them 
another body of Poitevins. 

Lastly, Henry was in debt to the pope. The pope had been 

continually pushing his claims to money, and making provisions for 

Debts to the ^^'^ dependents. The man who made the greatest 

pope. resistance was Eobert Grossetete, Bishop of Lincoln ; 

but he could do little to stop the provisions, while Boniface of Savoy 

the queen's uncle, who became archbishop in 1241, did nothing to 

help. In 1237, Cardinal Otho, in spite of the irritation of the clergy 

Exactions of and people, came over to England and collected vast 

the Papacy, g^j^g f^p ^^ papal treasury. At the Council of 

Lyons, in 1245, the English complained that sixty thousand marks 

a year went into the hands of the pope and the foreign clergy. 

These sums had been exacted from the clergy and people ; but in 

Henry accepts ^^^'^ ^^® P^P^j who had been warring in Italy against 

the crown of the descendants of the Emperor Frederick, who had 

Sicily for his 

son, and incurs married Henry's sister, offered the crown of Sicily 
further debts, ^j^j^j]^ j^^^j \iQ%\i part of the dominions of that monarch, 
to Eichard, Henry's brother. He refused it, and it was accepted 



1 



1255.] Henry III. 89 

for Edmund, the king's second son, then nine years old. Henry- 
had no money to pay an army to go to Sicily, so the pope entered 
upon the war himself, and put down all the expenses to Henry's 
account ; consequently, by 1257, Henry's debt to the pope amounted 
to 135,000 marks. 

Meanwhile in other respects Henry's government had been 
unsuccessful ; in 1242 he had been led by his mother to make an 
expedition to Gascony in support of his stepfather. 
This adventure cost him a large sum, and only resulted expeditious to 
in the battles of Taillebourg and Saintes, in which 
the balance was certainly on the side of the French king, and the 
arrival in England of a fresh batch of Poitevins, who came back 
with Henry in 1243. 

Moreover, Henry's rule in England had been hopelessly weak, and 
on one occasion a number of his own servants were weakness of 
convicted of highway robbery, to which they had henry's rule, 
been driven by the arrears into which their salaries had fallen. 

It must not be supposed that this state of things had been viewed 
with indifference by the country. In 1244 the earls, barons, and 
bishops had demanded control over the appointment 
of ministers, and in 1255 the same demand was 
renewed by Parliament, as the great council of the nation had now 
begun to be called. It was refused, but the demand showed that 
the opposition had reahzed the right way to influence the king's 
policy, and were slowly feeling their way towards making the 
ministers responsible to the nation. 

At length the barons found a leader against the foreigners, in 
the person of Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester. Simon 
was himself a foreigner. He was the second son Rise of simoa 
of another Simon de Montfort, who had led the ^e Montfort. 
Crusade against the Albigenses, but when his father died the elder 
son succeeded him, and Simon came over to England to try and get 
the earldom of Leicester, to which his mother, being His arrival 
the sister of the late earl, had a claim. This claim was "^ England, 
admitted by Henry III., who received de Montfort at court ; and de 
Montfort's next step was to marry Eleanor, the sister Marriage with 
of Henry, and widow of William Marshall, eldest son -^^^^'^ sister, 
of the regent. From 1248 to 1253 the Earl of Leicester acted as 



90 Early Angevin Kings. [1255- 

governor of Gascony, where he gained much experience, but acquired 
a character for severity, and he was unjustly charged by his subjects 
with peculation, tyranny, and cruelty. The result was a quarrel 
with Henry, and de Montfort left England for some time. 

On his return he was reconciled to Henry, but in 1257 he 
quarrelled with William of Valence, the king's half-brother, and 
Takes the lead ^°°^ ^^ leadership of the opposition. The time was 
of the very favourable for attacking Henry's government, 

opposition. rji^^ king's youugcr brother, Eichard Earl of Cornwall, 
had just gone to Germany, where he had been elected King of the 
Romans. Henry was desperately in debt, and the Parliament of 
1258, often called the Mad Parliament of Oxford, under the lead of 
Simon de Montfort and Richard Earl of Gloucester, took upon itself 
to reform the administration. 

The plan they adopted was to take the government out of the 
hands of Henry and hand it over to a committee of twenty-four 
Provisions of persons, who were to reform all grievances in Church 
Oxford. ^j^^ State. Besides this committee, another body of 
fifteen were to act for the future as council to the king ; the fifteen 
were to hold three annual Parliaments. For the reform of the 
country the committee ordained that sheriffs should be chosen 
annually by vote, and that the sheriffs, treasurer, chancellor, and 
justiciar should give in their accounts once a year. 

By a threat of resuming the lands which had been granted by 
Flight of the Henry out of the estates of the crown, his half- 
foreigners, brothers were terrified into flight, and with them 
departed the great body of foreigners, partiality for whom had been 
in the eyes of his subjects Henry's worst crime. 

The government of the council really lasted from 1258 to 1264. 

Henry had taken an oath to accept the provisions, but 

the provisions, he asked the pope as his overlord to absolve him 

^from^his'^ from it, and the pope did so. Henry and his barons 

promise by could come to no tcrms ; and, in 1263, Henry appealed 

to Louis IX. of France to arbitrate between him and 

his subjects. Louis was an excellent sovereign, but knew nothing 

Arbitration of about the merits of the case, so at Amiens he gave a 

St. Louis. decision in favour of Henry. This decision is generally 

called the " Mise of Amiens." 



1265.] Henry III. 91 

Open war now broke out between the king and the barons. As 

a rule, the north, with Devon and Cornwall, i.e. the poorer districts, 

were for Henry: the Midlands were divided; the South, .„ ^ ^ 

*' ' ' ' War bet-ween 

Cinque Ports, and London, i.e. the wealthy parts of the the king and 
country, were warmly for Simon de Montfort. The ^°^ ' 

Mortimers on the Welsh border were for the king, Llewellyn Prince 
of Wales was for de Montfort. In 1264 was fought the battle of 
Lewes, in which the king and Prince Edward, his eldest son, were 
defeated, and gave themselves up by a treaty called Battle of 
the "Mise of Lewes." The government now fell i^ewes. 
into the hands of de Montfort and Gilbert Earl of Gloucester, son 
of the earl mentioned above, and they summoned the celebrated 
Parliament of 1265. 

We saw that at the Conquest the place of the witena-gemot 
had been taken by the great council. This body contained the 
archbishops, bishops, and abbots, earls, and greater The Magnum 
and lesser barons. On very great occasions all of concilium, 
these assembled, but as a rule only the greater men attended its meet- 
ings. Magna Carta, in arranging for the calling of an assembly to vote 
scutages and extra aids, had provided that the archbishops, bishops, 
earls, and greater barons only, were to be summoned by writs sent to 
each separately, while the lesser barons were to be summoned by a 
general writ, sent to the sheriff in the county court. 

It was not to be expected that many would take advantage of 
such a general summons, so the next step was to „ 

\ Representa- 

send, as the representatives of the lower barons, tives chosen 
persons elected in the county court. Such repre- 
sentatives were first summoned to a Parliament in 1254, and in 
1265 two knights from each shire were summoned. 

This, however, left the chartered towns, who had nothing to do 
with the county court, completely unrepresented ; and as it was 
very important that their good will should be secured, _ 

p . . Representa- 

de Montfort and his friends called upon the prin- tives chosen 

cipal cities and boroughs to send each two repre- and boroughs. 

sentatives, so that this Parliament of 1265 was the Parliament 

first Parliament which contained, together with the 

archbishops, bishops, earls, and greater barons, representatives 

from counties, cities, and boroughs. 



92 Early Angevin Kings. 127s. 

However, the rule of Simon de Montfort did not last long. 
A quarrel arose between him and the Earl of Gloucester, and the 
Fau of Simon l^iiig's eldest SOU Edward took advantage of it to 
de Montfort. escape, joined the Mortimers, and got together an 
army. Simon de Montfort marched to Wales, but Edward defeated 
one of his sons at Kenilworth, and then hemmed in de Montfort 
himself in the corner made by the Severn and the Avon, and 
defeated him at the battle of Evesham on the latter river. In this 
battle Simon de Montfort was killed, and the attempt of the barons 
to control the government came to an end. 

Happily Edward was a very different man from his father, and 
had learnt a great deal from the struggle in which he had been 

_ engaged. It was due to him that what was good in 

de Montfort's de Montfort's arrangements was preserved. To all 
appearances Simon de Montfort's rebellion was a 
failure, but it led to three great results. First, after it we hear 
of no more inroads of foreign favourites ; second, it marks the end 
of the pope's interference in England as overlord ; and third, it 
gave people an ideal to aim at; and from this time forward, a 
ParHament representing the whole nation, to which the king's 
ministers should be responsible, was the ideal at which the states- 
man of this country aimed. 

After some fighting at Kenilworth and Ely, the country settled 

down again ; indeed, the latter years of the reign of Henry HI. seem 

Close of the ^° have been years of unusual prosperity, and in 1270 

reign. -fche times were so settled, that Prince Edward went 

on a Crusade, and while he was away his father died, in 1272. 

Henry III. was a weak king ; he had the misfortune to ascend the 

Henry's throne when a child ; he inherited from his father 

character, g^ detestation of the Great Charter and its principles, 
and allowed himself too easily to fall into the hands of foreigners, 
who had no other object than the satisfaction of their own ambition. 

For chief general events, and the battles and sieges of the earlier 
Angevin kings, see pp. 133 and 134. 



BOOK lY 
THE LATER ANGEVIN KINGS 

SOMETIMES CALLED 

PLANTAGENET3 



VIIT.~THE LATER ANGEVIN KINGS, SOME- 
TIMES CALLED PLANTAGENEIS, 1372-1399. 

Henry III., 1216-1272. 



Edward I. = (1) Eleanor 
1272-1307. of Castile ; 
(2) Margaret 
of France. 



Margaret = 
Alexander III. 
of Scotland. 



Edmund, 

Earl of 

Lancaster. 



(1) Edward II. 

1307-1327. 



Isabella (2) Edmund, Thomas, Henry, 

of France. Earl of Kent, Earl of Earl of 

executed. 1330. Lancaster, Lancaster, 

I d. 1321. d. 1345. 



Edward III. = Philippa of 



1327-1377. 



Joan = Henrv, 

Hainault. (1) Sir T. Holland. Duke of 
(2) The Black Lancaster, 
Prince. d. 1362. 



Blanche = John of Gaunt. 



Edward, = Joan, Lionel, John of = Blanche, 



Black 
Prince, 
d. 1376. 



of Duke of 
Kent. Clarence. 



Gaunt, 
d. 1399. 



heiress of 
Lancaster. 



Edmund, 

Duke of 

York. 



Henry IV., 1399-1413. 
Richard II., 

1877-1399. Philippa = Edmund Mortimer, d. 1380. 

Roger, Earl of March, 

declared heir of Richard II. in 1385, 

but killed in Ireland 1398. 



Thomas, 

Duke of 

Gloucester, 

d. 1397. 



IX.— THE KINGS OF SCOTLAND BET^WEEN 
1165 AND 1406. 

Henry, Earl of Huntingdon, 
son of David I. 



■William the Lion, 1165-1214. David, Earl of Huntingdon. 

I \ 

Alexander II., 1214-1249. I | 

I Margaret. Isabella. 

Alexander III., 1249-1286. j | 

^1 I Robert Bruce,* 

I Devorguilla = John Balliol. d. 1295. 

Margaret = Eric, King of j | 

I Norway. | | Robert, d. 1305. 

I Margaret. Jolin Balliol,* } 

Margaret, Maid of I 1292-1296. Robert I., 

Norway, 1286-1290. | | 1306-1329. 

John Comyn, Edward Balliol. 
murdered. 



David Bruce, Margaret = Walter the 



m. Joan, sister of Edward II., 
1329-1370. 



Steward or 
Stuart. 



Robert II., 1370-1390. 

Robert III., 1390-1406. 
* Competitors for the crown in 1292. 



X.— THE KINGS OF FRANCE BET^WEEN 1270 AND 
1423, AND CLAIM OF ED^WARD III. TO THE 
FRENCH CRO'WN. 

Philip III., 1270-1285. 



Philip IV. (the Fair), 1285-1314. Charles of Valoia. 
I , I 

i \ \ ! I 

Louis X., Philip V., Charles IV., Isabella, Philip VI., 
1314-1316. 1316-1322. 1322-1328, m. Edward II. 1328-1350. 

Edward III. John II., 

1350-1364. 



John I., d. 1316. Joan, Queen of Navarre. Charles V., 1364-1380. 
Charles the Bad. Charles VI., 1380-1422. 



CHAPTEE I. 

Edwaed L, 1272-1307 (35 years). 

T^ . „or> • 1 ( 1254, Eleanor of Castile. 

Bom 1239; married ^ .^„„ ,.. ^ n-r^ 

' \ 1299, Margaret of France. 

Chief CJiaracters of the Reign. — Llewellyn Prince of Wales, John Balliol, 
Robert Bruce (elder and younger), William Wallace, John Comyn, 
Earl Warrenne, Humphrey Bohun, and Roger Bigod. 

The heir to the throne being abroad, the government was carried 
on by the Archbishop of York and the Chancellor Walter of 
Accession of Merton. They had allegiance sworn to Edward in 
Edward. j^jg absence by the great men, so that his reign is the 
first which dates from the death of the last king ; former kings had 
always counted from their coronation. 

By leisurely steps Edward returned to England, and spent some 
time in Italy, France, and Guienne before he crossed the Channel. 
Commercial -^^^J^ foii^ of martial pursuits, he engaged in a tour- 
.treaty with nament at Chalon, in the Duchy of Burgundy, which 
ended in a deadly combat, in which many lives were 
lost, but from which Edward came out victorious. More important 
than this feat of arms was the treaty he made with the Countess of 
Flanders, by which the wool trade between England and the Nether- 
lands, which had been interrupted, was renewed. England was 
the greatest wool-gi'owmg country of the west of Europe, so this 
trade was of the utmost importance, and from this time the 
alliance between England and Flanders was regarded as being of 
the greatest consequence to both nations. 

Edward reached England in 1274, and his activity dming thethirty- 

rison of ^^^^^ years of his reign will compare with that of any 

Edward with other English monarch. In some ways he resembled 

his great-grandfather, Henry II. He had the same 

energy and regard for order ; but ha had the advantage of not being 



1278.1 Edward I. 97 

hampered by large possessions on the Continent, so that he was able 
to devote himself freely to further the interests of England. Two 
objects presented themselves to his mind ; first, to reduce to thorough 
efficiency the government of England, and secondly, to unite under 
one sceptre the whole of the British Isles. The former he was 
able to pursue from the beginning of his reign; the latter only 
opened itself to him as time went on. 

In dealing with the administration Henry II. had to force all his 
reforms on the country in the teeth of his barons ; Edward was 
able to use his barons to help him in ordering the ^ ,. ^. 

^ ° Constitutional 

country. This he did by means of Parliament, government of 
Edward was the first king who used Parliament ^^ ' 

as a means of government. His predecessors had looked on this 
assembly as diminishing their power, or at best as a means of getting 
money ; Edward, took it into his confidence, and gained its aid. 

Among the many Statutes of this reign the following are to be 
remembered. First, the Statute of Mortmain. Mortmain means 
'' dead hand," and when land was owned by a body of _ 

' .... Great statutes 

men and not by an individual, it was said in Roman of the reign, 
law to be held in mortud manu, i.e. in mortmain, or statute of 
dead hand. Land held by the Church was said to be ortmam. 
in mortmain. Now, people disliked land being acquired by the 
clergy, for many thought they had more than was good for them 
already ; and, moreover, land in mortmain escaped some of the 
feudal services and payments, such as reliefs and wardship and 
marriage. It was not easy to prevent the Church from acquiring 
land, because the clergy used to persuade men when dying to leave 
property to the Church, so that their souls might be prayed for when 
they were dead. Many persons also made sham grants of their land 
to the Church, receiving it back as tenants on easy terms, thus de- 
frauding the revenue. Accordingly, the Parliament of 1279 passed 
a very strict law to forbid land being given to the clergy without the 
consent of the king. 

Next is the Statute of "Winchester. This statute dealt with the 
defence of the country, and was founded upon the assize of arms 
which had been issued by Henry II. in 1181. It statute of 
must be considered together with the order about "Winchester, 
knighthood, which was issued in 1278. By this, all persons who 

H 



98 Later Angevin Kings, [1277. 

owned land to the value of twenty pounds a year were ordered 
to be knighited, and such knights were always expected to serve 
the king, either in person or by deputy, when he called for their 
services. All other freeholders were ordered to have arms suitable 
to their wealth, which were inspected at regular intervals. By this 
means the country was provided with an ejfficient defensive force. 

The third statute is that of Quia Emptores. This was the most 

important of the statutes passed in this reign about the holding of 

land. Its object was to prevent holders of land from 

granting out portions of their estates to be held as 

sub-tenancies ; it was enacted that such portions should always be 

held directly from the superior lord. This statute had the effect of 

increasing the number of owners who held directly from the king. 

Another statute affecting land was that of De Donis Con- 

ditionalibus, which enacted that when an estate was 

Sn'tsdls. 

granted to a man and his heirs, the holder of the 
property, being only a life-tenant, could not part with it. Such 
estates were said to be entailed, and the passage of this act was a 
most important event in the history of English land tenure. 

Besides passing these important statutes, Edward also further 
regulated the law courts, and, in the year 1300, arranged by the 
Regulation of Articuli Super Cartas that Courts of Chancery and 
tiie law courts. King's Bench were still to follow the king, but the Ex- 
chequer Court was to remain at Westminster, as the Court of Common 
Pleas had done since the granting of the Great Charter. During this 
reign the lawyers became very important, and statutes or decisions 
which date from the reign of Edward I. are enforced at the present 
day, unless they have been especially set aside. A familiar insti- 
tution, that of Justices of the Peace, dates from the same period. 
These officers were first appointed to carry out the Statute of 
Winchester, and were then called conservators of the peace. They 
got their present title in the time of Edward III. 

Another event of the reign of the first Edward was the ex- 
pulsion of the Jews from England. In the Middle Ages the Jews 
The Jews in alone let out money at interest, because usury was 

England. forbidden to Christians by the Church. Their rates 
were very high, as was natural when there were few lenders and 
many borrowers, and when the times were insecure, and they 



1277.] Edward I. 99 

made the Jews very unpopular. The Jews, however, were under 
the protection of the king, who regarded them as his chattels, kept 
a register of their loans, and helped to enforce repayment. For 
these advantages he made them pay heavily, by exacting an annual 
poll-tax of threepence on every Jew above fourteen years of age, 
and by taxing them whenever he wanted money. 
The Jews always lived together in special quarters, 
and to preserve them from attacks they were obliged to be in- 
doors at a certain time, and the gates of the Jewry were kept locked 
at night, and they also wore a badge to distinguish them from 
Christians. The hatred against them grew in the thirteenth 
century because they constantly sold up the lands of their debtors, 
which then passed into the hands of the large proprietors. At last 
they were accused of clipping the coin of the realm, Edward found 
it impossible to support them any longer, and they Their 

were all ordered to leave England in the year 1290. expulsion. 
It was not till long afterwards that they were allowed to live 
openly in England. The expulsion of the Jews added to the power 
of Parliament, as it deprived the king of a large source of income. 

The most interesting events of the reign are those which are 
connected with Edward's attempts to annex Wales and Scotland. 
Circumstances gave him opportunities of interfering 
in both countries, of which he was not slow to avail -A-ttempt to 

' annex W^ales 

himself; but Edward cannot be accused in either case and Scotland, 
of entering upon a war of wanton aggression. 

During the troubles of the previous reign, the Prince of Wales had 
taken the side of the barons, and had managed to assume greater 
importance than his predecessors. The present prince, ^ ^ 

Llewelyn, wished to play the same part, and pro- Prince of 
posed to marry the daughter of Simon de Montfort. 
This put Edward on his guard, and when Llewelyn put off doing 
homage again and again, the king detained the young lady, and 
invaded the country in 1277. 

The Welsh made a vigorous resistance, but were hemmed in 
among the ban*en mountains of Snowdon, and forced •w'ars -witii 
to come to terms. Llewellyn was allowed to marry "Waies. 
his intended bride, but only to keep as his principality Anglesea 
and the district of Snowdon., For three years the Welsh were quiet, 



loo Later Angevin Kings, uses- 

but in 1282, David, Llewelyn's brother, who had hitherto been on 
the English side, and been most kindly treated by Edward, made an 
unprovoked attack on Hawarden Castle. The prince, his brother, 
joined the nsing and went to the south, while David endeavoured 
to defend the north. Llewelyn, however, met his death at the 
Deatiiof hands of a single knight during a skirmish on the 
liieweiyn. Wye, and David, having fallen into the hands of the 
English, was condemned, by an assembly of lay barons and members 
for the towns and counties, to suffer a traitor's death. 

After the fall of these leaders Edward annexed the country, and 

his son Edward, who happened to be born at Carnarvon during 

the king's residence in Wales, was the next Prince of 

Annexation . . 

and settlement Wales. Edward is said to have won the favour of the 

° ^ ®^- Welsh by telling them that he would give them a 
prince who could not speak a word of English; but he took 
effective measures to secure order, by dividing Wales into counties 
and hundreds, and introducing the English law and administration 
of justice, while he tried to win the Welsh from their rude pastoral 
life by granting charters to towns, and giving encouragement to 
trade and commerce. 

In Scotland Edward was less successful. As we have seen from 
time to time, the English kings since the days of Edward the Elder 

Relation had held some sort of superiority over the Scottish 
Engi^d^ajid Dionarchs, but what these rights were was uncertain, 

Scotland. and since Eichard I. had surrendered the terms 
exacted by Henry II. from William the Lion, this uncertainty had 
increased. The present King of Scots, Alexander III., had done hom- 
age to Edward, but for his English fiefs alone, and not for his kingdom. 

It happened, however, that all Alexander's children died within 
a short time of one another, and one only, a daughter who had 

Marriage Hiarried the King of Norway, left behind her a child. 

arranged Alexander himself was killed by an accident in 1286, 

bet-ween the •' ^ ' 

Prince of and his grand- daughter became the heir to the throne. 

heires^ of ^ In these events Edward saw the means of bringing 

Scotland. about the union between the crowns of England and 

Scotland, and he persuaded the Scots to consent to a marriage 

between their little queen and his son, the new Prince of Wales. 

Unhappily, the Maid of Norway, as she Was called, died at the 



1895.) Edward L loi 

Orkneys on her voyage to Scotland, so this plan fell to the ground. 
But her death only caused a new difficulty, for a number of claimants 
to the crown at once appeared ; but it was agreed, as was usual in 
the case of a fief, to submit their claims to Edward as the superior 
lord. Edward agreed, and after securing the acknowledgment of 
his superiority, proceeded to consider the case. 

Of the competitors only two had any real claim. These were 
John Balliol, the grandson of Margaret, niece of William the Lion, 
and Robert Bruce (the elder), son of Isabella, Mar- Disputed 
garet's younger sister. Edward allowed Balliol and referred°to 
Bruce each to choose forty Scots ; to these he added Edward, 
twenty-four English, and to this body the question who was the 
rightful king was put. Of course they decided for BaUiol, whose 
claims were incontestably the stronger; and he, after swearing 
allegiance to Edward in the strongest terms, received the crown. 

It was one of the points in the feudal law that if any tenant 
felt aggrieved by a decision in the court of his lord, he had a right 
to appeal to the court of the superior lord. In accord- New difficulties 
ance with this right, which had certainly never been feu^airi^ht 
thought of when Constantino, King of Scots, com- of Edward, 
mended himself to Edward the Elder, some of Balliol's subjects 
appealed to the English law courts ; and Balliol was summoned to 
defend his decision, which he might do, if he chose, by deputy. This 
was galKng to Balliol, who, however, seems to have had little power 
in the hands of his chief barons. 

Meanwhile a difficulty had arisen in France, where Edward him- 
self, as Duke of Guienne, was a vassal of the French king. A Nor- 
man sailor had chanced to be murdered by an Endish- 

j XI AT • -1 Difficulty 

man, and the Normans, m revenge, seized a passenger about 
in an English ship and hung him topmast high, with c^ulemle. 
a dog at his feet. The result was a series of fights between the 
merchantmen of the two nations, in which the French got the worst. 
The fight soon spread to the land, and then the French king called 
upon Edward to answer for the conduct of his subjects. 
Edmund, the king's brother, went as his representative, summoned to 
and allowed himself to be gulled by the Frenchmen ^a^^s. 
into surrendering the castles of Gascony for six weeks, on the promise 
that at the end of that time they should be restored. The promise 



I02 Later Angevin Kings. ri295- 

was not kept. The French allied with the Scots, and for the next foui 
years France and England were at war ; while, to add to Edward's 
difficulties, the Welsh in 1295 broke out in revolt. 

It was in the midst of these troubles that Edward, in 1295, sum- 
moned what is known as the first complete and model Parliament. 
Model To this came, first, the spiritual peers, archbishops, 
fumm^ed! bishops, abbots, and the heads of the military orders, 
cierg-y. Each bishop was ordered to bring with him two 
representatives elected by the dean and chapter of the cathedral, 
and two representatives from each archdeaconry elected by the 
Barons. clergy. Second, the lay peers, earls and greater 
Knights of the ^arons summoned separately by writ. Third, the 
shire. knights of the shire, elected in accordance with a 

Burgesses and writ addi'cssed to the sheriff in the county court, 
and two burgesses or citizens from each borough or 
city which the sheriff of the county thought to be of sufficient 
consequence to send representatives. 

Thirty years had passed since the citizens and burgesses had been 
called to Simon de Montfort's Parliament; but since 1295 most 
Important Parliaments have in theory included the whole of the 
'parfiament^ ^^1 members mentioned above. Of the clergy, how- 
in history. ever, the proctors for the chapters and archdeaconries 
rarely, if ever, came, as they preferred to make their grants in Con- 
vocation, while the abbots were abolished by Henry VIII. 

With the money granted by this Parliament Edward was able to 

act vigorously against his enemies. The Welsh were soon put down. 

Invasion of The Earl Warrenne invaded Scotland, and a battle 

Scotland. -^^g fought in 1296 near Dunbar, where the Scots, 

descending in disorder from the slopes of the Lammermuir Hills, 

were overthrown on the plain by the English. Shortly afterwards 

BaUiol surrendered his kingdom, and was allowed to retire to 

Normandy, while Edward appointed Earl Warrenne as guardian 

of the Scottish kingdom. 

Edward next proposed to invade France, and for this purpose 

Invasion of allied with the Flemings ; but he soon met with an 

"po^edtbut" unforeseen difficulty. Pressed for money, he had not 

^^^^"^Z been scrupulous in his means of getting it, but had 

unpopularity, taxed the towns, seized the wool of the merchants, 



1297.] Edward L 103 

ordered his servants to levy supplies by force, and wrung from 
the clergy one-half of their yearly income. These exactions caused 
great indignation, and resistance was soon made. 

The first to stir were the clergy, who obtained from the pope 
a bull called Clericis laicos, which forbade them to grant their 
goods to a layman without the consent of the pope. clerical 
Armed with this, they met the king's next demand rettionstrance 
with a refusal. Edward retaliated by ordering the pay taxes, 
chief justice to announce that no suit in which a clergyman was 
plaintiff should be heard, but all against them should outlawry of 
be tried as usual. This meant that the clergy might *^^ clergy, 
be robbed with impunity, and accordingly the clergy by degrees 
gave way, some making the king a gift, others leaving victory of 
money where the king's officers could find it, and Edward, 
others paying large sums for protection. The archbishop, however, 
was still holding out, when help came from another quarter. 

Edward's plan was to attack France from Flanders in person, 
and to send an army to Guienne under Humphrey Bohun, Earl of 
Hereford, the constable, and Roger Bigod, Earl of Uefusaiof 
Norfolk, the marshal. Roger, however, irritated by in^°de prlnc 
the exactions, refused to go, saying that he was i)y themselves, 
only bound to follow the king's person. " By God," said the king 
" you shall either go or hang." " By God, sir king, I will neither go 
nor hang," was the answer ; and the earl kept his word. Edward 
had no time to press the quarrel, so he made terms with Edward goes 
the clergy, summoned his tenants to London, persuaded *o Flanders, 
them to grant him an aid, and then crossed to Flanders. 

This was the barons' chance. They marched to London, forbade 
the collection of the aid, and insisted that the young Prince of 
Wales, who had been left as regent, should confirm Bebeiiion of 
the Great Charter and the Charter of the Forest, at the barons, 
the same time adding a clause forbidding the collection of taxes 
without the consent of Parliament. This document, 
which is called the " Confirmation of the Charters," ^thf cha^rteS°' 
was then signed by Edward at Ghent. 

Meanwhile things had gone wrong in Scotland. A gentleman 
named William Wallace, who had murdered an Rebellion of 
Englishman, gathered round him a number of WaUace. 
enemies to the English side, and, gradually becoming strong enough, 



I ©4 Later Angevin Kings. [1307. 

attacked the forces of the guardian. With great military skill he con- 
Defeat of Cam- trived to attack the English army at Cambuskenneth, 
buskennetii. j^ear Stirling, when half of it had crossed the Forth by 
a long and narrow bridge. Those who had crossed were utterly cut 
to pieces, and Warrenne had the mortification to see his army ruined. 

The next year, however, Edward himself invaded Scotland, and 
Edward attacked Wallace at Falkirk. In spite of Wallace's 
invades most Careful arrangement of his army, in circles of pike- 

victory of men united by archers and backed by cavalry, Edward 
f^fof ■Wallace Succeeded in beating the Scots by attacking their rear, 
and Wallace's power was completely overthrown. 

The kingdom, however, was not yet conquered. The districts 
comyn's north of the Forth still held out, and placed at their 

rebeUion. bead John Comyn, the nephew of Balliol. Comyn 
had some success in 1303, but Edward again invaded the country 
Suppressed by and forccd him to submit. The insurgents were 

Edward. allowed to purchase their pardon by fines, and offers 
were even made to Wallace, but were rejected. Shortly afterwards 
that leader was captured, taken to London and executed as a 
traitor. His death made him the martyr of Scottish independence. 

All this time Eobert Bruce (the younger), Earl of Carrick, the 
grandson of the rival of Balliol, had usually been on the English 
RebeUionof ^ide, and had been consulted by Edward about the 
Robert Bruce, management of the kingdom; but in 1306 he de- 
termined to try for the crown himself, murdered Comyn, and was 
crowned at Scone. His chances seemed very poor, as he had 
against him not only the English, but also the relations of Balliol 
and the Lord of Lome. His forces in the field were soon defeated, 
and he with difficulty maintained himself in the woods and 

Death of mountains. Though the danger did not seem great, 

Edward. Edward was preparing to crush it himself, when his 
death near Carlisle, in 1307, brought his reign to a close, and 
totally changed the prospects of the Scottish king. 

Edward was twice married, first to Eleanor of Castile, and then 
to Margaret, sister of the French king. He left three sons who 
survived him. 



CHAPTER n. 

Edward II., 1307-1327 (20 years). 
Born 1284; Married, 1308, Isabella of France. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — Thomas of Lancaster, Piers Gaveston, 
Robert Bruce, Roger Mortimer, Hugh Despenser (father and son), and 
Adam Orleton. 

Edward, Prince of Wales, who succeeded his father at the age of 
twenty-three, was handsome, accomplished, and en- character of 
gaging ; but his reign was one of the most ruinous in Edward ii. 
English history. The chief causes of his misfortune were his love 
of pleasure and his attachment to favourites. 

The word "favourite" is one which may easily be misunderstood. 
It may mean a man or woman on whom a king lavishes honours 
and wealth, or it may mean a councillor on whose 

' *' 1 . T Meaning- of 

support the king relies. Favourites of both kinds the word 

were hateful to Englishmen of the Middle Ages ; the 

former because the king's grants were rightly thought to increase 

the weight of taxation by impoverishing the royal estates, the 

latter because the nobles looked on themselves as the hereditary 

advisers of the crown, and hated any man who engrossed the 

king's confidence. No king, therefore, had a chance of success 

who was not strong enough to stand alone, and so men Hke 

Edward II., Richard II., and Henry VI. met with their unfortunate 

ends. In England the leader of the barons against the favourite 

was always a younger member of the royal family. 

The first of Edward's favourites was Piers Gaveston. Gaveston 

was th3 son of a Gascon knight, and had been _. „ ^ 

. ' Piers Gaveston. 

brought up as Edward's companion. He turned out 

so badly that the late king had dismissed him from court; but 

when the old king died the young Edward recalled him and made 



io5 Later Angevin Kings. riso?- 

him Earl of Cornwall. He was a brave and able soldier, but he 
was haughty and vain, and irritated the barons past bearing by the 
nicknames he gave them. To this man Edward gave his confidence, 
and loaded him with riches and honour, so that he, a mere upstart, 
outshone the ancient nobles of the realm. 

Gaveston's antagonist was Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, the son 
of Edmund Crouchback,i younger brother of Edward I. He was 

Thomas of Earl of Lancaster, Leicester, Lincoln, Salisbury, and 

le^deTof tSe I^^rby, and was by far the most powerful subject the 

opposition, king had. This was the man whom Gaveston called 

*' the hog." His friend, the Earl of Warwick, was " the black dog." 

At his father's death Edward only advanced as far as Ayrshire, 
and then retired to England to arrange for his marriage and coronation. 

Edward's When he sailed to France, to marry Isabella, the 

favour to sister of the French king, said to be the most beauti- 

Gaveston .-r-, ■% i c r^ 

rouses tiie lul woman m Europe, he leit Gaveston as regent, and 

barons. ^^ j^|g coronation Gaveston walked in the place of 
honour. Enraged at this, the barons in Parliament demanded the 
dismissal of Gaveston. Edward had no means to resist, and 
Gaveston himself was forced to swear that he would never return 
to England. The king, however, appointed him Lord-Deputy 
of Ireland, and in 1309 he was ordered by the king, with the con- 
sent of a considerable part of the baronage, to come back to court. 

Meanwhile the disorders arose which always appeared when the 
king was too weak or too idle to make his power felt ; and in 1310 
B ns appoint *^® barons, determined to put a stop to these, came 

the Lords ^q ^T'estminstcr in arms, and, following the lead of 

conduct the the Oxford Parliament of 1258, appointed a council 

government. ^^ twenty-one bishops and barons, under the name 

of Lords Ordainers, to regulate the king's household and reform 

the abuses of the kingdom. 

To keep out of the way of the ordainers, the king and Gaveston 
invaded Scotland, where Bruce was too wary to allow them to 
bring him to an engagement. In this expedition Gaveston dis- 
tinguished himself; but the barons were determined to get rid of 

1 That is, crossback, or crusader. Cross Hill, near Banbury, is still called 
Crouch Hill. 



1318. J Edward II. 107 

him, and again insisted upon his banishment. This time he went 
to France and then to the Netherlands, but soon Deatiiof 
returned, and in 1312 the barons succeeded in oaveston. 
separating him from the king, and forcing him to surrender at 
Scarborough. He was sent as far as Deddington, in Oxfordshire, 
under the care of the Earl of Pembroke, but was there seized by 
the soldiers of Gruy, Earl of Warwick, and executed near Kenil- 
worth, in the presence of Lancaster and Hereford. The saying, "If 
you let the fox go, you will have to hunt him again," decided his 
fate. Such murders had hitherto been almost unknown in England. 

Edward, though heart-broken by the loss of his friend, was 
powerless to avenge his death, so was forced for the time to pardon 
the barons, and then gave his attention to Scotland, successes of 
It was high time that something should be done. Bruce. 
Though Bruce had avoided a great battle, he had steadily been 
seizing castle after castle in the lowlands. Roxburgh and Edinburgh 
were already in his hands, and Stirling was closely besieged, when, in 
1314, Edward prepared with a splendid army to invade Scotland. 

His force would even have been stronger had not Lancaster and 
some of his friends unpatriotically refused to join the expedition. As 
it was, Edward with superior forces encountered Bruce 

Invasion of 

near Bannockbum, under the walls of Stirling. Scotland. 
The excellent dispositions of Bruce, who prevented Defeat at 
the cavalry from breaking his line, as at Falkirk, ^'^^^ ^^• 
by a series of concealed pits, overbalanced the superior numbers. 
The English were defeated, and numbers of the fugitives were killed 
in their attempt to force their way through a hostile country. 

Encouraged by their success, the Scots helped the Irish in an 
attempt to overthrow the English rule, and for some ^ . ^ . 

^ ° ' Irisli msurrrec- 

time Edward Bruce, the younger brother of the tion helped by 
Scottish king, seemed likely to become King of Ire- 
land ; but his death at the battle of Dundalk, in 1318, ruined the 
cause, and the surviving Scots returned home. 

For a time the Scots had it all their own way on the border, 
captured Berwick, and even advanced to Scarborough 
and Ripon, and their presence kept the northern Eng-iandby 
counties in constant apprehension, and threw back 
the rising prosperity of that part of the country. 



io8 Later Angevin Kings. 



i[lS18- 



To add to the English misfortunes, the years 1314 and 1315 
were times of famine; the crops failed, and prices were so high 

Famine of that many perished from hunger ; bands of robbers 
1314 and 1315. traversed the country, and the nobles made matters 
worse by turning adrift the retainers who usually lived in their 
castles, and were fed and clothed at their expense. 

The result of these disasters was to add to the power of the Earl 
of Lancaster, who was able to dismiss the king's officers and to 

Power of bring his own friends into power. Among these was 

rise of the ^ jo^ng nobleman named Hugh Despenser, the son 
Despensers. of a baron of the same name, and grandson of the 
justiciar of Simon de Montfort. He was made the king's chamber- 
lain, and soon became as great a friend of the king as Gaveston 
had been. Though the Despensers were great English barons, 
the favour of the king soon made them unpopular with their 
fellows. Lancaster headed the attack on his former friend, and 
Parliament in 1321 demanded and secured the banishment of the 
Despensers. 

Owing, however, to an insult offered to the queen by one of the 
Lancastrian party, who refused her admission to Leeds Castle in 

Defeat of Kent, a reaction took place in the king's favour ; and 
Lancaster at when proofs were found that Lancaster had been 

Borougrli- 

bridge, and fall Corresponding with the Scots, Edward, in 1322, felt 
o e arons. g^p^j^g enough to attack the barons. Before the 
king's forces Lancaster and his friends retreated towards Scotland, 
but were intercepted at Boroughbridge on the Ure, by the governors 
of York and Carlisle. Hereford was slain, and the rest were forced 
to surrender. Lancaster, with many of his followers, were exe- 
cuted at Pontefract, to revenge the death of Gaveston; and Koger, 
Lord Mortimer, was imprisoned in the Tower. 

After the fall of Lancaster, a Parliament met at York which 

laid down a most important principle, namely, that what concerns 

the whole realm must be treated of by a complete Parliament. 

This was intended to prevent the barons from taking power into 

their own hands, as they had done when thev ap- 

Commons grain , . j r 

a share in pointed the lords ordainers, but it really admitted 

eg-is a ion. ^j^^ Commons to a share in legislation. 

The king now made another invasion of Scotland, but was unable 



1327.] Edward II. 109 

to bring the Scots to an engagement, while his army was starved 
by the devastation of the country. He was, therefore, rresh disasters 
obliged to retreat, and the Scots made an all but i^ Scotland, 
successful attempt to surprise him as he lay at Byland Abbey, in 
Yorkshire. In 1323 a truee was concluded with Scotland for 
thirteen years. 

In 1325 a difficulty arose about Guienne, and Queen Isabella 
went to France to settle it. There she was joined by her 
son Edward, who came over to do homage for Queen Isabella 
Guienne in his father's stead. At Paris also she ^andconSi^eT 
met Mortimer, who had escaped from the Tower in with Mortimer. 
1324, and the two entered into a conspiracy to overthrow the 
Despensers. In spite of Edward's efforts, she and Mortimer, with 
the Prince of Wales, landed at Orwell in Suffolk, and were soon 
joined by the queen's friends and by the old followers of Lancaster. 

The king, finding he could trust no one, fled with the De- 
spensers to the west. Meanwhile, under the influence of Adam 
Oiieton, Bishop of Hereford, the plot had developed rate of 
into one for the dethronement of Edward himself. Edward's 
The king made an attempt to escape by sea ; but 
contrary winds drove him back, and at last, one after another, 
the two Despensers and Edward himself fell into the hands of 
the insurgents. The elder Despenser was executed at Bristol, the 
younger was hung at Hereford on a gallows fifty feet high. 

Edward's fate was soon determined. He was left at Kenilworth, 
while a Parliament was summoned at Westminster, where Orleton 
asked the members whether they would have the _ ^^ 

'' Dethronement 

father or the son for king. Shouts were raised for and death 

the son, and the Parliament then drew up articles of ° ^^^ 

deposition, while a deputation, with Oiieton at its head, was sent 

to Kenilworth to withdraw from the king the allegiance of his 

subjects. When this had beeii done, the lord chamberlain broke 

his rod of office, and the reign was considered at an end. Edward's 

person was intrusted to the keeping of his deadly enemies, and 

within a few months his murdered corpse was exposed to view at 

Berkeley Castle, near Bristol, and then quietly buried. The plea 

that he had died a natural death deceived no onCi 

The reign of Edward ll. saw the dissolution of the Knights 



no Later Angevin King's. [1327 



Vb"'^'-"' -^^""^i- 



Templars. This order of military monks, with the Hospitallers 
or Knights of St. John, and the German knights, arose out of 
the Crusades. When Palestine was lost, the Knights of St. John 
retired to Rhodes, which they fortified as a bulwark against the 
advancing Mahometans, while the German knights fought against 
the heathens who still hved along the shores of the Baltic. The 
Templars, on the contrary, gave up their work and lived in idleness, 
while their great wealth and military training made them formidable 
subjects. Accusations of ill-life and of heresy were brought against 
them, and the order was dissolved by the pope in 1312, and most 
of their wealth went to the Knights of St. John. 



CHAPTER m. 

Edwaed III., 1327-1377 (50 years). 
Born 1312 ; married, 1328, Philippa of Hainault. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — Roger Mortimer, the Black Prince, John of 
Gaunt, Archbishop Stratford, Henry Earl of Lancaster, and his son 
Henry Duke of Lancaster, William of Wykeham, John Wycliffe, 
Lords Latimer and Neville, and Alice Ferrers. 

The new king was in his fifteenth year when he ascended the 
throne. Henry, Earl of Lancaster, the younger brother of Earl 
Thomas, was the leading man in the king's standing council, but 
the chief power was in the hands of Isabella and Mortimer. 

The first difficulty was with Scotland. In spite of the truce, the 
Scots had invaded the north of England. Their army of horsemen 
was so rapid in its movements that it was hard to invasion of 
bring them to action, and when Edward had at the Scots, 
length discovered their position, they avoided battle by a sudden 
retreat. Happily for both countries, peace was soon peace witii 
afterwards concluded at Northampton, and the inde- Scotland, 
pendence of Scotland was fully recognized. The next year Robert 
Bruce died, and was succeeded by his son David, who was the first 
of the Scottish kings to be anointed with oil at his coronation, thus 
asserting that he reigned as an independent monarch, and not 
merely as a vassal of England. 

The rule of Mortimer was disliked by the Earls of Lancaster and 
Kent, a younger son of Edward I., and in 1330 Mortimer foimd 
means of executing the latter for treason ; but the same year 
Edward with Lancaster's help seized Mortimer and had him 
hanged, and henceforward ruled as well as reigned. 

Though the cessation of the Scottish wars was a good thing for 
both England and Scotland, it was not popular with those barons 



112 Later Angevin Kings. ussb- 

who owced estates on both sides of the border, who feared to lose 

. *.^ one or the other ; and in 1332 some of them assisted 
Attempt of tlie ' ^ i ^ i • t i 

barons to make Edwaid Balliol, the son of the former kmg, J ohn 

'^^'^^^sof^"^ Balliol, to attempt to dethrone David. For a time 
Scotland. j^g succeeded, and defeated David's forces at Dupplin 

Moor, but soon had to fly the country. 

Edward, who had discountenanced the expedition, now came to 

his assistance, and besieged Berwick. The Scots tried to relieve 
it, and were defeated at Halidon Hill, 1333; Ber- 

Englisli ' .11 

invasion of wick fell into the hands of the English, and has 
H^rd* n^^iii ^^^^ coimted as one of the possessions of the English 

Capture of king ever since. Balliol was again placed on the 

Berwick. throne of Scotland, and David fled to France, but was 
very soon restored by the Scots, and Balliol was expelled the 
country. A second invasion by Edward and Balliol produced no 
result. 

In the time of Edward I. we saw that the Scots had begun 

the poHcy of allying with France against England. 
Scots receive rj ^o o ° 

help from This was always their plan, and now Edwards 

Trance. interference made them call for French aid. This 
was given. In 1886 Philip invaded Gascony, and the result was 
the outbreak of the great war between England and France. 

All the brothers of Isabella, wife of Edward II. (see pedigree IX.), 

had died in turn, leaving only daughters, and by the Salic law no 

Question of tiie woman could reign in France ; but Edward now de- 

Frencii clarcd that the rights of the brothers had passed to 

Edward's his mother Isabella, and through her to himself, and 
claim. i)[sski^ therefore, he should be King of France, instead 
of Isabella's first cousin, Philip of Valois, to whom the French had 
given the crown. This claim of his was entirely an after-thought, 
for in 1329 he had done homage for his dominions to Philip, and it 
was only when he wanted to punish the French king for helping 
the Scots and for receiving David at his court that he brought 
forward the claim. 

Edward, however, not only persuaded himself that his demand 
was just, but he also got the English Parliament to believe that it 
would be a good thing for England if he could become King of 
France. This was probably due to the idea that if the king had 



1337.] Edward III. 



113 



large foreign possessions he would require less taxes, causes why 
and also that there would be more trade with France pS-uament 
if the two countries were joined; but it is also supported 
thought that the English were afraid lest Flanders, to 
which the}'' sent their wool, might fall into the hands of the French 
and so their trade might be stopped ; for Flanders was to England 
what Yorkshire is to the Australian wool-growers at the present 
day. For these reasons the Parliament was eager to help Edward, 
and to vote taxes to pay for the war. 

This helped to make the Parliament much more important, and 
other causes helped to the same end. In 1322, as we saw, the 
Commons had got a share in legislation, but in 1332 importance of 
the knights of the shire are first recorded to have Paruament. 
deliberated by themselves, and the next year they joined themselves 
to the citizens and burgesses ; so that Parliament separation into 
separated into two houses, as it is now — the lay and *^° houses, 
spiritual peers forming the House of Lords, and the knights of the 
shire and citizens and burgesses the House of Commons. 

This change was most important. By birth the knights of the shire 
were of the same class as the lords, often they belonged to the same 
family ; and their sitting in the House of Commons importance of 
prevented the king from playing off one house against *^^^ change, 
the other, as he certainly could have done had the two been 
composed wholly of different classes. Moreover, the spiritual peers 
sat with the lay nobles, so that they could not be played off against 
one another. This helped Parliament to act as a whole. In the 
French estates, on the contrary, the nobles, clergy, and commoners 
sat in separate chambers, and the king used to play off two classes 
against the third ; this could not be done in England. 

In 1337 Edward assumed the title of King of France, and pre- 
pared for war. The Parliament had granted him money ; he had 
next to look out for men and allies. For an army Raising of 
Edward relied neither on the feudal array nor on the troops, 
militia ; he used hired soldiers, as England has always done since, 
when soldiers have been wanted. He was able to pay them well, 
as he had plenty of money, and young men of all classes who 
thought they had a turn for fighting flocked to his banners. They 
took service under some great man, and the whole army was 

I 



ii4 Later Angeviit Kings. [1337- 

formed into divisions, thorouglily well armed and rudely drilled. 
The best soldiers were the archers. 

For allies Edward, of course, had the Flemings, at the head of 

whom was the great master-brewer of Ghent, Jacques Van Artaveld ; 

but he also made friends with the small states on the 

east of France and with the Emperor, so he had 

hopes of bringing an immense force to bear upon the French king. 

The next question was the point of attack. Three routes pre- 
sented themselves, first by way of Flanders, second by the river 
Seine, and third by way of Gascony. Of these, 
France by way Edward, in Order to be with his allies, chose the first. 
On his arrival, however, he found that his friends, 
though wilhng to receive subsidies, were unwilling to risk themselves 

in the field. He invaded France, but Philip wisely 

Its failure. . ' x »» 

declined a pitched battle, and having exhausted his 

money and loaded himself with debt, Edward returned the next 
year to England. Parliament granted him the enor- 
mous tax of the ninth lamb, the ninth fleece, and 
the ninth sheaf in his dominions, and, having collected a new 
fleet and army, Edward prepared to return. 

He learnt, however, that Philip had prepared a vast fleet at 
Sluys to prevent his passage. The French fleet was formed in four 
lines, but Edward arranged that each ship of men-at- 
arms should be supported in its attack on a French 
ship by two vessels filled with archers, who shot down the French- 
men on the deck ; the men-at-arms then boarded, and in this way 
hue after line was defeated, and the ships either sunk or taken 
prisoners. The French loss was enormous, and for thirty years the 
English had complete command of the seas, and could 

Englisti gam ° ^ ' 

command of go to and fro as they chose. From Sluys Edward 

went to Brussels, but his new invasion of France was 

a failure, and it was not till 1346, when he changed his base of operations 

to the mouth of the Seine, that any success was won (See map, p. 145). 

Meanwhile Edward was terribly pressed for money, and he con- 

auarreiwitii ceived the idea that his ofiicers were cheating him of 

Arciibishop the taxes they collected. Accordingly he hurried to 

England in 1340, dismissed the Chancellor Robert 

Stratford with the other officials, and accused John Stratford, Arch- 



1346.] Edward III, 115 

bishop of Canterbury, of wasting his money, and ordered him to 
answer the charge before the Court of Exchequer. This Stratford 
refused to do, and the peers backed him up in demanding that a peer 
should never be tried except before his peers assembled in full 
Parliament. Edward was forced to yield, and he also made three 
other concessions of great importance. 

First, that the accounts of the kingdom should be audited by 
auditors elected in Parliament ; second, that ministers should be 
appointed by consultation between the king and his concessions to 
lords, and should be sworn before Parliament to keep parliament, 
the law ; third, at the beginning of each Parliament ministers were 
to resign their offices into the king's hands, and be compelled to 
answer complaints brought against them. The first of these gave 
Parliament complete control over the purse, for they not only were 
to vote taxes, but also to inquire how the money had been spent ; 
the second and third established what is called responsibility of 
ministers to Parliament. These concessions were revoked by the 
king the next year ; but they show what the statesmen of the four- 
teenth century aimed at, and how strong Parliament had become. 

For five years little had been done in the French war, but in 1346 
Edward changed his base of operations to the mouth of the Seine. 
He did this because a dispute had arisen about the 

, T 1 f . , Invasion of 

succession to the duchy of Brittany, and of course France byway 
he took the side of one candidate and Philip of the ° ® ®^^®' 
other; accordingly, in July, 1346, he raised a new army and landed in 
Normandy. After plundering Caen, Edward reached Allies with 
Rouen, and finding the bridge over the Seine held in Brittany, 
force, he turned towards Paris, and, after burning and plundering 
Vernon and Mantes, he reached the neighbourhood of that city. 
His movements were followed by Philip on the right bank of the 
river. Edward's object was to reach Flanders, and by a clever feint 
on Paris he decoyed Philip from the bridge of Poissy, seized it, and 
crossed the Seine. 

He then marched north, but the river Somme, which runs slow 
and deep through a marshy soil, barred his path ; the 
bridges were all held or destroyed, and Philip was towards 
close behind him. (See map, p. 145). Flanders. 

It seemed that Edward would be shut into the corner between 



ii6 



Later Angevin Kings. 



1346. 



the Somme and the sea, when, by threats and bribes, he induced a 
Passage of tiie peasant to lead the army across a ford still called 
Somme. Blanchetaque, or white shingle, where the mouth of 
the Somme could just be crossed at low tide. A body of horsemen 
barred the passage, but the English fought their way across with 
the courage of despair, and Philip only arrived in time to see the 
incoming tide cutting him off from the rear of the English forces. 



H about 3^mi2&r ^Qm.Z^z.Br&yd 



I 1 ......... jE>tj72>^ Soot 



J-rench. 

^ Cross erec^d. to mffTnory 




PLAN OF CEECr. 



Arrived on the north side of the river, Edward turned to bay on the 
high ground behind the village of Crecy, where the ground slopes 
away on three sides for a distance of some six hundred yards from 
a windmill which still marks the spot, and there, on Saturday, 
August 26th, 1346, he waited for Philip, who had gone back to 
cross the Somme at Abbeville, to come and attack him. 

The rest was a great help to the English, and they made good use 
of it to prepare for the coming fight. Edward drew up his men on 



1346.] Edward III. 117 

the hillside, with their backs to the light, in three bodies, each 
composed of men-at-arms and archers. All were on Arrang-ements 
foot. The archers of each body were arranged in for the battle 
lines behind one another like a harrow, so that the 
rear ranks could shoot over the heads of their fellows. 
Behind the archers stood the men-at-arms. The first division, led 
by the Prince of Wales, now a lad of fifteen, and the Earls of 
Warwick and Oxford, was in front ; the second, under the Earl of 
Northampton, a little in the rear on one side ; the third in reserve. 
Edward is said to have had in these divisions only four thousand 
men-at-arms and twelve thousand archers; but he had certainly 
camp-followers, and a body of archers had been told off to guard 
the baggage. Against this small but highly trained army Philip 
brought an immense but inefficient force. It was of 
the old feudal pattern, and the only infantry were 
a number of hired Genoese cross-bowmen, and a few serfs dragged 
unwillingly to the fight. To add to his disadvantages, Philip made 
the attack at the end of a long day's march, when the army was 
tired and disorganized, and when the strings of the crossbows were 
drenched with rain. 

Under these circumstances the English quietly stood their ground, 
and poured upon the surging crowd arrows that pierced the joints 
of the knights' armour, and brought their horses to 
the ground, while the wretched cross-bowmen fell 
in heaps, or were trodden down by the impatient horsemen. When 
at length the French, by mere weight of numbers, reached the 
English ranks, the two foremost closed up, and when night fell 
were still unbroken, while the French army was in hopeless 
confusion. 

Philip, wounded, fled from the field to La Broye, and thence to 
Amiens, his brother was killed, and numbers of nobles were slain 
or taken prisoners. The next day a dense mist pre- Eoutofthe 
vented the French from rallying, and the slaughter French, 
of that day was said to have been greater than that of the fight 
itself. The glory of the day was given to Edward, Prince of Wales, 
who has ever since kept as his motto the words " Ich dien " (7 serve) 
— said to have been that of the blind King of Bohemia, who had 
fallen in the fight as the ally of the French king. 



ii8 Later Angevin Kings, [i346- 

From Crecy Edward marched to Calais, to whicli lie laid siege. 
By this time he had lost faith in his Flemish allies, who had 
Siege of murdered his friend, the great brewer, Van Artaveld, 
Calais. ^j^d the possession of Calais would give him a port of 
his own. Moreover, Calais was famed for its pirates, who annoyed 
the merchants of the southern coast; and if he could win it, he 
would not only rid himself of this evil, but also would secure a 
mart for the English wool. Against Calais Edward used no engines 
of war, but simply formed his lines round it, and waited till famine 
should subdue the garrison. To raise the siege Philip levied a new 
army, and also persuaded his allies the Scots to invade the northern 
counties, and help to divert the attention of the English. Both 
these attempts were unsuccessful, for when it came to the point 
Philip dared not risk another battle. 

His Scottish allies fared even worse. The Scots had crossed the 
border, and were harrying Northumberland and Durham, when they 
I Invasion of learned that the lords of the border, Percy and 

tiie Scots. Neville, and the Archbishop of York, with an army 
raised by the encouragement of Queen Phihppa, were ready to 
attack them. The battle was fought on October 17, 1346, at a 
place afterwards known as Nevill's Cross, near Durham, and, as at 
Crecy, the English archers showed their superiority over feudal 
cavalry. The invaders were totally routed, and David King of 
Scots was taken prisoner and conveyed to London. 

For nearly a year Calais held out, and at last, when their supplies 
were exhausted, the garrison agreed to treat. Edward declared his 

Capture of Intention of punishing them for their piracy, but was 
Calais. moved to gentler counsels by the entreaties of his 
wife Philippa. To secure his new conquest, Edward took most 
careful measures. All the inhabitants who would not swear 
allegiance to the English king were expelled, and their place 
supplied by colonists from England. Privileges were granted to 
the citizens, and it was ordered that all wool going to the Continent 
should pass through Calais, which secured for it a flourishing trade. 
The defences were put in good order, and a strong garrison 
maintained. The English of those days thought as much of Calais 
as we now do of Gibraltar. 

The capture of Calais brings to a close the first part of the war 



1349.] Edward IIL 119 

Edward had been successful in the north, and his general, the Earl 
of Derby, son of Earl Henry of Lancaster who died 1345, had dis- 
tinguished himself greatly by defending Gascony close of first 
against superior numbers. For his services there he part of the war. 
was raised to the rank of duke, being the first to hold that rank 
in England. 

For a time the thoughts of all were turned from the war by the 
Black Death. This terrible pestilence, which broke out in China, 
gradually made its way to Europe ; it reached Con- r^^^ Black 
stantinople in 1347, and England in 1349. Its Death, 
ravages were terrible, and were helped on by the filthy habits of the 
people and their neglect of all sanitary precautions ; for it is known 
that some monks, whose monastery had been supplied with good 
water, were hardly touched by the plague at all. It is hard to know 
how many persons died, but two Archbishops of Canterbury were 
cut down the first year, and it is said that in the East and West 
Hidings of Yorkshire one-half the priests died. In those days there 
were no registers of deaths kept, so we can only guess at the 
number of the victims, but these were so numerous as to cause a 
great crisis in the history of wages and agriculture. 

At this time all England was divided into manors. The lord of 
the manor usually owned half the soil, a portion was in the hands 
of freemen, and the remainder was held by villeins. The manorial 
The viUeins paid the lord for their houses and land system. 
by doing for him certain fixed services, and paying certain dues ; 
these, however, could not be altered, and so long as they were paid 
the villein could not be turned out. The lord cultivated his own 
land through his bailiff, who supplemented the customary services 
by hiring the poorer villeins as labourers. Each manor had its mill 
and dovecot. The villeins were all obliged to get their corn 
ground at the lord's mill; and they were not allowed to keep 
pigeons, but every villein had his pig and bis poultry, and very often 
cattle, which were pastured on the common lands of the manor. 
When the lord let his own lands to a farmer, he always let with 
them the stock for the farm, so that there were no farmers who 
merely rented the land from the landlord as they do now. 

For some time the lords had been glad to let the villeins pay a 
fixed sum of money instead of performing services, because the lords, 



I20 Later Angevin Kings. [1849- 

especially when they were going on a crusade, or had reliefs to pay, 

Rise of "^^^^ S'^^^ ^^ S^* ready money; and when such an 

copyiioiders. arrangement was made, it was noted down in the roH 

of the manor, and a copy was given to the villein, who was then 

called a copyholder, and his land a copyhold. 

When the Black Death came and killed numbers of labourers, 
wages, of course, rose, and then the landlords were driven to their 
Effects of the '^''^^^ ^^^ *^ S®* their fields cultivated. To keep 
Black Death, wagcs down, Parhament passed several laws, called 
the Statutes of Labourers, forbidding labourers to receive higher wages 
than they had earned before the plague came; and when it was 
found impossible to enforce these laws, because the cost of living 
had risen too, the landlords then tried to find flaws in their villeins' 
copies, and to do all they could to make them perform their old 
services instead of paying in money. As the rise in the price of labour 
had made the villeins prosperous, these attempts were resented, and 
for many years the country population was extremely discontented. 
For some years after the siege of Calais the French war languished, 
but in 1355, Edward the Black Prince — so called from his black 
armour — starting from Gascony, made a plundering expedition into 
Second period ^^® south of France, and returned home laden with 
of the -war. gpoil. The next year he made a raid upon the 
France by way provinces south of the Loirc ; but this time the King 
of Gascony. ^£ France, John, son of Philip of Valois, cut him 
off with an immense army at Poitiers. The French outnumbered 
the English by at least four to one, and so desperate seemed his 
case, that the prince was willing, at the request of the pope's legates, 
who were present, and, to the credit of the Papacy, doing all they 
could to prevent bloodshed, to agree to any reasonable terms ; but 
the French demanded that the prince should yield himself a prisoner 
of war, and to this he would not submit. 

The scene of action was a valley called by the French Mau- 

pertuis, or the ill gap, through which a lane passed. Edward drew 

Battle of Poi- ^P ^^^ main body of archers and men-at-arms on 

tiers Sept. 19th, foot, in the favourite harrow formation, across the 

Arrangements lane, at the point where it came out of the valley 

of the troops. ^^ ^^^^ h\^\ ground above, and placed the rest of his 

archers along the hedges which ran parallel to the lane, and in the 



1356.J 



Edwa7'd III. 



121 



vineyards on the slopes, so that the French when attacking would 
thrust themselves between two hostile fires. He placed a small 
body of men-at-arms in ambush so that they might charge the 
French in flank. 

At Poitiers the French, mindful of Crecy, put their main body on 
foot, but reserved a select body of horsemen to charge down the 
lane. These were soon thrown into confusion by the 
showers of arrows from the slopes, and the dying and 
struggling horses formed a barrier between the English and the 
incoming French. Safe behind this living rampart the English 



The fight. 



1 




l^IELD OF POITIERS, 19TH SEPTEMBER, 1356. (ADAPTED FROM SPKDNEfi.) 

archers closed up, and poured their arrows on the main body of the 
French, while the handful of men whom Edward had sent forward 
fell upon the French flank. The whole army then fell into confusion, 
and the English, advancing to the charge, attacked the Result of 
body-guard of the French king. John disdained to the battle, 
fly, and after a bloody combat he found himself the prisoner of the 
prince whose terms he had so disdainfully rejected a few hours before. 
From Poitiers Edward hurried to England with his prize, and 



122 Later Angevin Kings. [isse- 

was received in London with the utmost enthusiasm. Four years, 
Peace made at however, elapsed before peace was concluded, and it 
Bretigny. ^^^^^ Qj-,iy ^f^^r the EngHsh, under Edward, had suffered 
terrible hardships during an almost unresisted march to Paris, that 
Edward agreed to come to terms. 

The treaty, which was called the Great Peace, was made at 
Bretigny in 1360. By it Edward agreed to give up his claim to the 
Terms of the French crown, and to Normandy, Anjou, and Maine, 
treaty. j- g^ ^q ^I^q possessions derived from Henry II. On 
the other hand, he was to have in full sovereignty the whole of 
the duchy of Aquitaine, which had come to England through 
Eleanor, the wife of Henry II. ; Ponthieu, which was the dowry of 
Margaret II., wife of Edward I. ; and his recent conquest, Calais. 

By this arrangement Edward secured the advantage of extensive 

possessions in the wine-growing districts of the south of France, 

Results of the ^^^ entrance for his wool and his soldiers into the 

•war. north, and a great accession to the glory of the 

English name. In return for these advantages he gave up the 

empty dream of uniting the crowns of the two countries. The new 

possessions in the south were created into a principality, which was 

conferred on the Black Prince. At the same time a treaty was 

made with David, and both France and Scotland were bound over 

Treaty with ^^ P^Y large ransoms for their captive kings. The 

Scotland. Scots paid their instalments with difficulty, but it 

was found quite impossible to raise the stipulated sum in France ; so 

John returned to England, and died during his residence in this country. 

The validity of the treaty of Bretigny depended on the mutual 

renunciation by the English and French kings of the claim to the 

Cause of fresh crown and the suzerainty over the ceded provinces 

trouble. respectively. The formal ceremony was delayed by 

the lawyers, and in the end this delay was the cause of the renewal 

of hostilities. 

While England and France had been at war, Spain had been 

convulsed by the cruelties of Pedro the Cruel, Kinsr 

state of Spain, n r^ . ' s> 

of Castile. His unpopularity was so great that his 
illegitimate brother, Henry of Trastamare, formed a plan to dethrone 
him, and called to his aid many of the professional soldiers who had 
been lately fighting for the French or English. He was successful, 



1373.] Edward III. 



123 



and Pedro appealed for help to the English. The Black Prince, out 
of a false idea of the duty of princes to dethroned , ^ 

., IT,. , Interference of 

sovereigns, gave him his aid, and defeated Henry of tiie Black 
Trastamare in 1367 at Najara, near Vittoria, in Spain ; ^^^^ce. 

but Pedro was unable to pay the expenses of the expedition, as he 
had promised, and the Prince, loaded with debt and smitten with 
disease, returned to Bordeaux. To pay his creditors, Edward 
levied taxes on his French subjects; this was resented, and the 
people of Aquitaine appealed to their superior lord, the King of 
France, who summoned Edward to answer for his conduct. This, 
of course, led to war. 

The second stage of the war opened with far less advantage to 
the English than the first. The enthusiasm of the nation had 
cooled, and men were less eager than before to offer _ 

IT •!-. • 1 1 -, Kene-wal of 

themselves as soldiers. Besides, the French soldiers the war. 
were very different from those who had fought at Bad prospects 
the beginning of the war. In a long war the feudal 0^*^^^ English, 
system always broke down, and then the French had to adopt the 
English plan of hiring soldiers. These men were well trained, and, 
we may take it, made as good soldiers as the English had ; so they 
could no longer rely on winning against superior numbers as of 
old, and in any fight the chances are that the invaders will be 
outnumbered. Moreover, the French king, Charles V., was a very 
clever man, and had adopted as his motto that the French never 
ought to fight pitched battles with the English, but should content 
themselves with small skirmishes, cutting off supplies and stragglers, 
and harassing the invaders without bringing on a decisive engage- 
ment. Under these circumstances the renewal of the war was all 
in favour of the French, and they rapidly overran the English 
provinces, in spite of all the efforts of the Black Prince. 

The war began in 1369, and in 1372 the English suffered a 
disaster which made their case hopeless. Since the battle of Sluys 
they had had the command of the sea, but in 1372 Loss of the 
they lost this advantage ; for the Spaniards, who were command of 
now under Henry of Trastamare — for Pedro had been Defeat off 
murdered — were on the side of the French, and in that RocheUe. 
year the Spanish fleet completely defeated the English under the Earl 
of Pembroke, near Eochelle. After this the French made way rapidly., 



124 Later Angevin Kings. [I872- 

An expedition under John of Gaunt lost almost all its men without 
bringing the French to action, and in 1374 only Calais, Bordeaux, 
and Bayonne remained in the hands of the English. 

It is now time to return to English events. During the wars the 
Parliament had been very active ; the continual demands for money 

Activity of g^"^^ i^ excellent opportunities for demanding redress 
ParUament. Qf grievances, and a great many statutes were passed, 
some bad, some good, which effected many changes in the state of 
the country. 

Among others, two important laws regulating the Papal power 
were enacted. We saw how, in Henry III.'s time, the pope 

statute of ^^d caused discontent by paying his servants with 

provisors. English livings. In 1351 was passed the Statute of 
Provisors, which ordered that all persons receiving such preferments 
from the pope were to be liable to imprisonment, and that the right 
of presentation should go for that turn to the king. 

We have also seen how jealous the English were of appeals being 
made to the Papal courts. In 1353 a statute was passed to prevent 

statute of persons prosecuting suits in foreign courts without the 
Praemunire. ]jing's leave. This law was called the Statute of 
Praemimire, from the words in the writ jpraemunire (a corruption 
Q^ praemoneri facias J cause A. B. to be forewarned). Its penalties 
were forfeiture of goods and imprisonment during the king's 
pleasure. This statute was often renewed, and it was held a 
violation of it to receive letters from Rome without the king's 
consent, as had been forbidden by William the Conqueror. 

Another statute defined the meaning of treason. This term 

statute of had been made very elastic by the lawyers, so it 

Treason. ^^g ^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^1^-^^^ ^^ j^^^^ j^^ meaning laid down. 

Its chief forms were levying war against the king, or plotting his 
death. This statute was passed in 1352. 

Edward had sometimes evaded the confirmation of the charters 
by getting the merchants to make a private grant of a duty on wool. 
Private grants "^^^^ clearly infringed the rights of Parliament, and 

forbidden. was forbidden by statute in 1362. Besides these 

Regulation of Statutes, Parliament took a great deal of trouble to 

regulate trade, with a view to increasing the quantity 

of coin in the kingdom. It was long thought that the amount of 



1376.] Edward III. 125 

coin in a country was the true test of its wealth. This is now known 
to be a mistake. 

During the latter part of Edward III.'s reign, a great deal of 
discontent was roused against the clergy. This took various forms. 
Some part of it was directed against the pope, who unpopularity 
was now living at Avignon, on the Khone ; for the of the pope. 
English hated paying money to him, when they feared that some of it 
found its way into the treasury of the King of France. The Statutes 
of Pro visors and Praemunire were the outcome of this feeling. 

The English clergy themselves were also very unpopular, and 
that for many reasons. For many years the way in which the 
clergy engrossed most of the offices of state had been atipi of the 
much disliked ; for the universities were now turning clergy, 
out plenty of laymen sufficiently weU educated to perform the 
duties required, and who naturally objected to these posts being in 
the hands of a particular class. Complaints were also made from 
the country that bishops and priests neglected their dioceses and 
hvings in order to go and seek lucrative places in London; while 
there was a general outcry against the wealth of the clergy, which 
was said to lead to all manner of corruption even in the most 
recently created orders. (For orders of regular clergy, see p. 187). 

To reform these abuses, one party appeared who wished to drive 
the clergy from all secular offices, and another who wished to purge 
the Church of abuses and to restore it to the purity Rise of the 
of primitive times. The latter were often called bollards. 
Lollards, a name which is frequently used to include reformers of 
all kinds. At the head of the former was John of Gaunt, at the 
head of the latter was John W3''c]ifFe. 

John of Gaunt was the third surviving son of Edward III., 
and when that king grew old, and the Black Prince was abroad or 
in feeble health, he aspired to be the leader of the johnof 
government. His rival in the state was William of Gaimt. 
Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester, the founder of Winchester College 
and of New College, Oxford. 

John Wychffe, a Yorkshireman, was educated at Oxford, where 
he became master of Balhol College. He was strongly j^j^^ 

moved by the corruption he saw around him, and Wyciiffe. 
at Oxford he did his best to train up a set of young priests who 



126 Later Angevin Kings. [1376. 

should set an example of the duties of clergymen ; he also trans- 
lated the New Testament, and published in a popular style 
tracts which appealed to the intelligence of the common people. 
Wycliffe was not the only man to write against the clergy — the 
whole literature of the time is full of satire on the monks and friars ; 
and Chaucer's Prologue to the " Canterbury Tales " gives us a very 
good idea of the feelings with which some of the orders were regarded. 
The disasters of the French war were naturally charged on the 
party in power, and in 1371 Parliament petitioned 

The clergy r •' ,. . ^, i rv 

replaced by the king to dismiss all his clerical officers. This gave 
aymen. jolm of Gaunt an opportunity of appointing his own 
friends ; but they proved worse administrators than the clergy they 
had displaced. 

A reaction, therefore, ensued, and in 1376 a Parliament was 

elected, under the influence of the Black Prince and his brother 

Lionel, Duke of Clarence, which attacked the king's new advisers. 

Some of them were very corrupt, and had made friends 

The Good 

Parliament, with the king's mistress, Alice Perrers. Accordingly 
Impeach- the Commons proceeded to impeach, that is, prose- 
cute before the House of Lords, Lords Latimer and 
Neville. It was the first time that the Commons had attacked the 
king's ministers in this way. The persons impeached, and also 
Alice Perrers, were condemned and punished, and William of Wyke- 
ham came back to power. This Parliament is known as the Good 
Parliament. 

Unfortunately the Black Pruice died in 1376, and many feared 

that John of Gaunt would try to set aside the little son of the Black 

Prince, and make himself king on Edward's death ; 

Reaction on r-t • . ni tti 

death of the but the Commons insisted that Eichard should be 
Black Prince, j-gcognized as heir-apparent. John of Gaunt then 
called another Parliament, which reversed the acts of its pre- 
decessor. To revenge himself on Wykeham, he also allied himself 
Death of the ^^^^ Wycliffc, and defended him when he was sum- 
^T^s. moned by the bishops to appear before them at St. 

Paul's. These violent proceedings caused much discontent, and 
matters were in this position when the kiug died, in 1377. 



CHAPTER Vr, 

Richard TI., 1377-1399 (22 years), 

^ ^^^^ . , /- 1381, Anne of Bohemia. 

Bom 1366; married, | jgg^^ ^^^^^^ of France. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — John of Gaunt and Henry Bolingbroke ; 
Thomas, Duke of Gloucester ; Edmund, Duke of York ; De Vere, 
Earl of Oxford ; Neville, Archbishop of York ; the Earls Arundel ; 
Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury; Sir Simon Burley ; Thomas 
Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk ; John Wy cliff e 5 and Wat Tyler. 

0]sr Edward's death, his grandson Richard, the son of the Black 
Prince, was made king. He was only eleven years old, which was 
a very unfortunate thing for the kingdom, as his lot Difficulties of 
had fallen in troublous times. Not only was the war ^'^^ reign, 
with France still going on, but also there was reason to expect 
difficulties in England. 

Besides the Black Prince, Edward IH. had had four grown- 
up sons, and he had provided for them by marrying them to rich 
heiresses. Thus Lionel, Duke of Clarence, married ■w'eaitii of the 
the heiress of the De Burghs, who had great estates ^oy^i family, 
in Ireland; John of Gaunt married the heiress of Henry, Duke 
of Lancaster ; Edmund, Earl of Cambridge, and afterwards Duke of 
York, married a daughter of Pedro the Cruel; and Thomas of 
Woodstock, afterwards Earl of Gloucester, married the co-heiress 
of the Bohuns of Hereford. The daughter of Lionel, Duke of 
Clarence, married the Earl of Mortimer ; while John of Gaunt's 
eldest son, the Earl of Derby, was married to the sister of 
Gloucester's wife. The result of these marriages, which took place 
in Edward's lifetime or soon after, w^as to collect very large estates 
in the hands of the royal family — an arrangement which was hkely 
enough to cause trouble. Besides this, the commons were discon- 
tented, and the whole country had been much oppressed by taxation* 



128 Later Angevin Kings. 11377- 

To carry on the government a council was appointed, from 

which the king's uncles were excluded, and the care of the king's 

Formation of person was entrusted to his mother, Joan of Kent. 

a councu. r^\^^ g^st duty of the council was to provide for the 

carrying-on of the war. The French were ravaging the southern 

coasts, and, to provide for their defence, the Commons voted a 

large sum ; but they stipulated that it should be paid into the hands 

^ , of two London merchants, Walworth and Philipot, 

Control over ' 

the whom the king named as treasurers. This was a very 

expenditure, i^^pop^ant step, and shortly afterwards the Commons 

demanded to see the accounts of the treasury ; this they had never 

done before, but the government were so pressed for money that it 

was quite impossible to refuse. 

Unfortunately, the tax granted by Parliament did not amount 

to as much as was expected, and in 1381 an additional tax had 

to be levied. The first tax had been graduated 

- axes, according to wealth, John of Gaunt having paid 

£6 13s. 4cZ., while the poorest only paid ^d. each ; but the new 

tax was a shilHng each on all over fifteen. 

This caused great discontent, and the commons all over the east 
and south of England rose in insurrection. The chief risings were 
Rising of the ill Essex, under a leader who called himself Jack 
peasants. Straw, and in Kent, under one who took the name of 
Wat Tyler. Everywhere the rebels burnt the manor-houses 
in order to destroy the rolls on which the services due by the 
villeins were recorded, and they killed every lawyer on whom 
they could lay their hands. The rebels from Essex and Kent 
reached London ; but the men of Essex were pacified by promises, 
and Kichard himself won the goodwill of the Kentish-men after 
their leader, Wat Tyler, had been killed by Walworth, the Lord 
Mayor. The rebels demanded that customary services should be 
Demands of the abolished, that the rent paid for the land, instead of 
serfs. ^]^Q services, should be fourpence an acre, and that all 

should have liberty to buy and sell in fairs and markets. These 
demands were granted by the king ; but when Parliament met, the 
landowners refused to confirm the grant, on the ground that no 
one had a right to deprive them of the services of their villeins. 
In practice, however, individual landlords were unable to enforce 



1386.] 



Richard II. 



129 



the services, and the peasants' revolt marks the beginning of a 
century of great prosperity for the labouring classes. 

During the insurrection the rebels had shown great hostility to 
John of Gaunt, who continued, however, to have much influence till 
1385; but in that year Eoger Mortiroer,i Earl of March, 
the grandson of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, was declared 
heir to the throne, which destroyed his hopes of the succession, 
and the next year he made an expedition to Spain, to prosecute 
his right to the crown of Castile, which he claimed through his 
second wife, the elder daughter of Pedro the Cruel, and remained 
there till 1389. 

During the absence of John of Gaunt, the government lay in the 
hands of the council, in which Michael de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk, 
had the chief power, and his principal colleagues Rise of a 
were De Vere, Earl of Oxford (afterwards created »eace party 

' ^ and. a "war 

Duke of Ireland), Neville, Archbishop of York, and Sir party. 
Simon Burley. The council advised peace, but the nobles, headed 
by Thomas of Gloucester, opposed this poHcy, and naturally had 
the support of those who had made money by the war, and of 
the soldiers who would lose their occupation if it was concluded. 

To defeat the plans of the council, Gloucester and his friends in 
1386 demanded the dismissal of Suffolk. For some time Richard 
resisted, but the opposition threatened him with the g^^,^ ^ 
fate of Edward II., and he was compelled to yield. A between the 
council of eleven was then appointed as a commission, anTthe^ior J 
to sit for a year, and to regulate the royal household ^PPe^ian*' 



> ROGER MORTIMER'S CLAIM. 
Edward III., 



Edward 
the Black Prince, 
d. 1376. 

Rieliard II,, 

1377-1399. 



Lionel, 
Duke of Clarence. 

I 
Philippa = Edmund Mortimer, Earl of 
March (great-grandson 
of Roger Mortimer, who 
was executed 1330). 

Roger, 

Earl of March, 

d. 1398. 



130 Later Angevin Kings. [isse- 

aud tlie kingdom. Eichard disliked this, and got the judges to 
declare the council illegal. Upon this, the Duke of Gloucester, and 
the Earls of Arundel, Derby, Nottingham, and Warwick, took up 
arms and beat the king's friends, under De Vere, at Eadcot Bridge, 
on the Thames in 1387. A Parliament, called the Merciless, was 
then summoned to meet in 1388, and the confederated lords 
appealed 1 of treason the king's favourites, De Vere, Suffolk, Neville 
Archbishop of York, Sir Simon Burley, and others. Some were 
executed and some banished, and the chief power fell into the 
hands of Gloucester. The next year, 1389, Richard declared 
himself of age, and took the government into his own hands. 

Richard's reign was a time of great activity with the Lollards. 

Wycliffe died in 1384, but Richard's wife, Anne of Bohemia, was 

their friend, and under their influence Parliament 

The liOUards. 

renewed the Statutes of Provisors, Mortmain, and 
Praemunire. Some even wished to go further, and deprive the 
Church of its property, and this naturally made the clergy angry 
with the court, and favourable to the party of the nobles. 

In 1389 John of Gaunt returned to England, and afterwards 
gave his support to the king, who obhged him by making his 

children by Katharine Swynford legitimate, and 

having the deed confirmed by Parliament. These 
children were called the Beauforts. 

In 1394 Anne of Bohemia died, and in 1396 Richard married 
Isabella, the sister of the French king, and made a truce with 
France for twenty-five years. This truce was distasteful to 
Gloucester and his friends, who thwarted Richard every way in 

their power, and he, on the other hand, determined 
Gloucester and to crush them once for all, and to rule as he thought 

fit. To do this he laid his plans with great skill, 
won over the Earls of Derby and Nottingham to his side, and then, 
in 1397, suddenly aiTested the others and accused them of treason. 
Arundel was executed, and his brother, the Archbishop of Canterbury, 
was banished. "Warwick was imprisoned; but when Gloucester 
should have been tried, it was announced that he had died at Calais. 
Every one believed that he had been murdered by order of his nephew. 
Having thus got rid of his opponents, Richard called a Parliament 
* To appeal is to deliberately charge. 



1399.] Richard II. 131 

at Westminster. On previous occasions the Commons had been 
strong because tbey had been supported by the Parliament of 
mihtary power of the nobles ; but now that this was Shrewsbury, 
broken, they were overawed by the king's body-guard of Cheshire 
archers, and were compelled to annul the acts of the Merciless 
Parliament. At a second meeting held at Shrewsbury they granted 
the king customs for life, which deprived them of control over 
the purse, and delegated their authority to eighteen of their members, 
who of course belonged to the king's party. 

It now seemed as if Eichard were absolute, and the next year he 
found an opportunity of getting rid of his only formidable opponents. 
A quarrel occurred between the Duke of Hereford, 
formerly Earl of Derby, and the Duke of Norfolk, Hereford and 
formerly Earl of Nottingham. They accused each 
other of treason, and as there was no evidence except their own 
word, the case was decided by single combat. However, when the 
fight was to begin, Eichard stopped it, and gave sentence that 
Norfolk should be banished for life, and Hereford for ten years, 
which were afterwards reduced to seven. This was unjust, for 
both could not be guilty, and impolitic, for Hereford was by far 
the more dangerous of the two. In banishing them Eichard stipu- 
lated that they should not communicate with Archbishop Arundel ; 
but he promised Hereford that he should not be deprived of any 
land or goods which came to him by inheritance during his exile. 

However, within a short time news was brought that Eoger 
Mortimer, the heir-apparent, had been killed in Ire- confiscation of 
land, and Eichard, whose extravagance made him Joii^ofGaunt's 

' ' ^ property. 

poor, was foolish enough to seize the property of Expedition to 
John of Gaunt, who had died shortly after his son's Ireland, 
exile, to provide funds for an expedition to that country. 

While he was in Ireland, the new Duke of Lancaster came 
back to England and demanded the estates of his Lancaster's 
father. All those who had favoured Gloucester, or revolt, 
who were aggrieved by Eichard's arbitrary government, flocked to 
his standard ; and the Duke of York, who had been left as regent, 
offering no resistance, the whole country passed into the power of 
Lancaster. Meanwhile Eichard was detained in Ireland by contrarj 
winds, and when he at last landed in Wales, he found that the army 



132 



Later Angevin Kings. 



[1309. 



of Welshmen on whom he had rehed had dispersed before his 
arrival. He was then tricked into sm-rendering himself into the 
hands of his cousin, and a Parliament, called under the influence of 
Lancaster, after enumerating his various arbitrary acts, deposed him. 
The throne was then claimed by Henry of Lancaster, as the 
descendant of Henry HI. His real claim rested on the ready con- 
Throne claimed Sent of the clergy, nobility, and commons of the realm, 
byiiancaster. ^j^q thought that the transference of the crown from 
an extravagant and arbitrary king to one who they believed could 
restore order, and secure them from the evils of the late govern- 
ment, was the best thing for the country. 



CHIEF GENERAL EVENTS UNDER ANGEVIN KINGS 
[SOMETIMES CALLED FLANTAGENETS). 



Quarrel with Becket 

First settlement of English in Ireland 

Magna Charta agreed to 

Parliament of Oxford 

De Montfort's Parliament 

Annexation of Wales 

Claims to Scottish throne referred to Edward I. 

First complete and model Parliament 

Confirmatio Cartarum agreed to 

Lords Ordainers named 

Commons admitted to full share of legislation 
Parliament divided into Lords and Commons 
Hundred years' war with France begins 

The Black Death 

The Good Parliament 

Peasant Revolt 

Death of Wyclifee 



1164-1170 

1172 

1215 

1258 

1265 

1284 

1291 

1295 

1297 

1310 

1322 

1333 

1339 

1349 

1376 

1381 

1384 



Richard II. 133 



BATTLES, SIEGES, AND TREATIES, UNDER THE 
ANGEVIN KINGS {SOMETIMES CALLED PLAN- 
TA GENETS), 

1174 

1191 

1213 

1214 

1217 

1217 

1242 

1242 

1264 

1265 

1296 

1297 

1298 

1314 

, 1322 

1328 

1333 

1340 

1346 

1346-7 

, 1346 

1356 

1360 

1367 

1372 

1387 

1388 



Treaty of Falaise 


Siege ( 


of Acre 


Battle of Damme 


J5 


Bouvines 


j> 


Lincoln 


5) 


Sandwich 


M 


Taillebourg ... 


1) 


Saintes 


J) 


Lewes 


M 


Evesham 


JJ 


Dunbar 


JJ 


Cambuskenneth 


>> 


Falkirk 


55 


Bannockburn 


J> 


Boroughbridge 


Treaty 


of Northampton 


Battle of Halidon Hill 


J) 


Sluys 


JJ 


Crecy 


Siege < 


of Calais 


Battle of Nevill's Cross 


JJ 


Poitiers 


Treaty 


of Bretigny 


Battle 


of Najara 


3J 


Eochelle 


)J 


Radcot Bridge 


11 


Otterburne ... 



BOOK V 

THE YOBK AND LANCASTEB KINQS 



XI.—THE HOUSES OF YORK AND LANCASTER. 



Edward III., 1327-1377. 



Lionel, 
Duke of Clarence 
(2nd son), d. 1368. 



Edmund, 
Duke of York, 
(4th son), 1401. 



I 

John of Gaunt 

(3rd son), 

1399. 



Philippa, = Edmund Morti- 



d. 1381. 



nier, Earl of 
March (great- 
grandson of 
Roger Mortimer, 

who was 
executed 1330). 



Elizabeth, 

m. Henry 

Hotspur. 



Roger, 

Earl of March, 

killed 1398. 



Blanche 
of Lancaster. 



Henry IV., 

1399-1413. 



Henry v., Thomas, 
1413-1422. Duke of 
Clarence, 
1421. 

Henry VI., 

1422-1461. 



John, Humphrey, 
Duke Duke of 

of Bed- Gloucester, 
ford, 1446. 

d. 1435. 



Edmund, 

Earl of March, 

d. 1424. 



Anne = 



Richard, 



Earl of Cambridge, 
executed 1415. 



Richard, Duke of York, 
killed at Wakefield 1460. 



Edward, 

Duke of York 

(elder son), 

killed at Agincourt 1415. 



Edw^ard IV., 

1461-1483. 



George, Duke of Clarence, 
executed 1478. 



Richard III., 

1483-1485. 



Edward V, Richard, Duke of York, Elizabeth = Henry VII. 
1483. supposed to have been murdered 
in the Tower 1483. 



XII.— SCOTTISH KINGS, 1306-1488. 
Robert Bruce, 1306-1329. 



David II., Margaret = Walter the Steward, 
1329-1370. I generally spelt Stuart. 

Robert II., 1370-1390. 



Robert III., 1390-1406. Robert, Duke of Albany, 
I d. 1420. 

I I 

James I., = Jane Beaufort, Murdoch, 

1406-1437. I (see p. 162). captured at Homildon, 
I d. 1425. 

James II., 1437-1460. 

James III., 1460-1488. 

XIII.— THE KINGS OF FRANCE, 1350-1515. 
Jolin II., 1350-1364. 



Charles V., 1364-1380. Philip, Duke of Burgundy, 
I d. 1404. 



Charles VI., Louis of Orleans, John, Duke of Burgundy, 

1380-1422. murdered 1407. murdered 1419', 

I I at Montereau. 

Charles VII., Charles, Duke of Orleans, | 

1422-1461. captured at Agincourt, Philip, Duke of Burgundy, 

I grandfather of d. 1467. 

Louis XI., Louis XII., I 

1461-1483. 1498-1515. Charles (the Bold), 

I Duke of Burgundy, 

Charles VIII., d. 1477, 

1483-1498. m. Margaret, 

Bister of Edward IV. 



CHAPTER I. 

HEimY IV., 1399-1413 (14 years). 

T. . o/^/. • J r 1380, Mary de Bolnm. 

Bom 1366; married, ^ ^ .^o t Vf -vt 

' i 1403, Joan of Navarre. 

Chief Characters of the Eeign. — Archbishop Arundel, the Earl of North- 
umberland, Henry Percy (Hotspur), Owen Glendower, Thomas Beau- 
fort, and Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester. 

The first act of the new government was to imprison the late 

king. He had still a good many friends, and the Earl of Eutland, 

son of the Duke of York, Eichard's half-brothers, the 

favour of Earls of Huntingdon and Kent, and the Earl of Salis- 

Riciiard. bury, entered into a conspiracy in his favour. The 

plot was either betrayed by the Earl of Eutland or detected by his 

father, and those who rebelled were captured by the common 

Death of people, who were strong partisans of Henry. The 

Riciiard. chief result of the insurrection was to cause the 

murder of Eichard. What was his exact fate is unknown, and this 

uncertainty served to keep alive reports that he was still Hving, 

which added much to Henry's difficulties. 

Henry's success had been much furthered by the assistance of 
the bishops, who had been opposed to the Lollardism of Eichard's 
ActDeHeretico court. They were rewarded, in 1401, by the passing 
comburendo. Qf ^he act De Heretico Comburendo, which enabled 
the ecclesiastical courts, on the conviction of any one of heresy, 
to hand him over to the civil powers for execution. This act was 
passed by the lords at the request of the clergy, but without the 
consent of the Commons. The first person executed for heresy was 
William Sawtre, at one time vicar of Lynn, in Norfolk. From this 
time forward executions were not unfrequent. They are not often 
mentioned by the chroniclers, but the expenses of burning a heretic 
occur from time to time in the accounts of cities and boroughs. 



1403.] Henry IV. 139 

Henry soon found himself in difficulties, both in Wales and 
Scotland. In Wales, Owen Grlendower, who had formerly been 
in the service of Kichard, raised a rebellion, ravaged Q-iendower' 
the lowlands, and retired for safety into the fastnesses rebeiuon. 
of the country. These tactics made it very difficult to bring him 
to battle, and the young Prince of Wales, to whom the duty was 
entrusted, found the task quite beyond his powers. 

With Scotland, since the release of David, the English had, on 
the whole, been on fair terms, but Eichard had once, in 1385, 
invaded the country, and in 1388 a battle had -war with 
been fought at Otterburn between the rival border Scotland, 
lords, Percy and Douglas. Now, however, the Scots refused to 
acknowledge Henry, so he attacked them. With a powerful army 
he advanced to Leith and burnt the town; but the Scots refused 
to be drawn into a pitched battle, and the English, having consumed 
their provisions, returned home without glory. The conduct of the 
war was left to Percy, Earl of Northumberland, and his son Henry, 
sumamed Hotspur. In 1402 the Scots were beaten at Nesbit Moor 
and at Homildon Hill, where the Percies were fortunate enough 
to take prisoners the Earl of Douglas and Murdoch, Earl of Fife, 
the son of the Duke of Albany, brother of the Scottish king. Henry, 
of course, demanded possession of the prisoners, and this demand 
led to a quarrel. 

Although the Percies had been the chief supporters of Henry's 
attempt against Eichard, they complained that the king had never 
repaid them the sums they had advanced. Moreover, nebeUion of 
Hotspur had married Elizabeth Mortimer, the sister *^® Percies. 
of that Eoger who had been declared heir to Eichard 11. Her 
brother Edmund, the guardian of Eoger's children, who were kept 
by Henry in Windsor Castle, had been taken prisoner by Glendower, 
and Henry refused to do anything towards procuring his ransom. 
Exasperated by these grievances, the Percies in 1403 formed a con- 
spiracy, into which they brought the Earl of Worcester, brother 
to the Earl of Northumberland, Douglas, Owen Glendower, and 
Mortimer. 

The great object of the conspirators was to join their forces, so 
Hotspur and Douglas hurried to the Welsh border, while Northum- 
berland stayed behind to wait for an army of Scots who were to join 



140 House of Lancaster. ti403- 

the enterprise. Hotspur had raised the men of Cheshire, who were 
Battle of devoted to the cause of Eichard, and was close to 
Shrewsbury. Shrewsbury, the possession of which would have 
secured his junction with Glendower, when Henry entered the town 
before him. The next day an obstinate battle was fought within sight 
of the walls, and while the fortunes of the day were yet doubtful, 
Hotspur fell by a chance arrow, the rebel army was completely routed, 
and Douglas and Worcester were taken prisoners. Worcester was at 
once executed, and Henry marched north against Northumberland. 
That crafty nobleman, however, pretended that the troops he had 
levied were intended for the king's assistance, and Henry found 
himself obliged to accept this explanation. 

Two years later, in 1405, another conspiracy was discovered ; its 

leaders were Scrope, Archbishop of York, the brother of one of 

EeTDeUionof Richard's ministers, and Thomas Mowbray, Earl of 

Scrope and Nottingham, son of the Duke of Norfolk, whom Eichard 

ow r y. j^^^ banished. The insurgents were outwitted, not 

to say cheated, by John, the king's third son, and were both executed. 

The public execution of a prelate is noteworthy in the history of the 

Church, and shows how much the respect for the clergy had declined 

since the days of Thomas Becket. 

The Earl of Northumberland, who had sympathized with the 

rebels, escaped their fate by flying to Scotland. For some time 

Fate of he sought aid iq that country and in Wales, but in 

'^and^^^of " 1408, having raised a small army on his northern 

Glendower. estates, he was defeated and slain at Bramham Moor, 

near Tadcaster. Dming the whole of the reign Owen Glendower 

maintained himself in his fastnesses, and sometimes ventured to 

attack the English in the plains, and till his death in the next reign 

he managed to preserve his independence. 

These troubles made Henry's throne no enviable seat during the 
early years of his reign, but his ability enabled him to overcome 
Good fortune of them, and by degrees he became firmly seated. 
Henry abroad, fortune gave him great advantages in his relation 
to foreign countries. Scotland was distracted by the ambition of the 
Duke of Albany, the younger brother of the mad King Eobert IH., 
whose son Murdoch was in Henry's hands; and when the Scots 
sent James, Robert's little son and heir, to France to be out of 



141S.] Henry IV, 141 

the way of his uncle's violence, he was captured off Flam- 
borough Head by the English. These two captures gave Henry a 
great ascendency in Scotland, and in France circumstances were 
equally favourable. In that country the imbecility of the king, 
Charles VI., had allowed the nation to be convulsed by a struggle 
between the rival houses of Burgundy and Orleans. In 1407 the 
Duke of Orleans was murdered, and four years later Henry assisted 
the Burgundians against the revenge of the duke's followers. The 
next year he changed sides, and sent his son Clarence to help the 
Orleanists, and in this way he was able to keep France weak. 

At home, however, Henry was totally unable to make head 
against the demands of his Parliament. The extravagance of 
Eichard had left the crown poorer than ever. Henry 

„ _ . , 1 1 . P Constitutional 

feared to excite the country by askmg tor money, rule of 
so his only chance was to rule as a constitutional ^®^y i"^- 
sovereign. Accordingly, we find the Commons in 1406 insisting 
upon a proper audit of the accounts of their grants, and the king 
in 1407 conceding the right of the Commons alone to originate 
money grants, and allowing perfect freedom of deliberation on such 
grants between both Houses of Parhament. In 1404 the king even, 
at the request of the Commons, named twenty-two members of 
Parhament to be his great and continual council, and in 1406 and 
1410 similar requests were made, showing that the notion that 
ministers should be chosen by consultation between king and Parlia- 
ment, which had been stated under Edward HI., was now being 
put into practical effect. 

One great object of the Commons was to induce the king to 

confiscate the property of the Church, which they 

, , . if I r \> Proposed 

assured him would serve to support a large force of disendowment 

soldiers, and so give relief from taxation ; and it was °^ *^® church.. 

only the friendship of the king to the Church which prevented them 

from carrying this policy into effect. 

Another object was the abolition of retainers. These were men, 

often disbanded soldiers, who wore the badge of some great lord 

and were bound to fight in his quarrels. They con- 

- . The retainers. 

Btituted a standing army for those who could afford 

to keep them, and were an incessant temptation to rebelhon and 

private war. Three times during this reign the Parhament forbade 



142 House of Lancaster. [1412. 

their maintenance, but the king was not strong enough to enforce 
the observance of the law. 

The chief statesmen of the reign were Archbishop Arundel, and 
Thomas and Henry Beaufort, sons of John of Gaunt by Katharine 

Close of the Swynford. Henry himself seems to have preferred 
reign. Arundel; the Prince of Wales favoured the Beauforts. 

Towards the close of the reign, Prince Henry seems for some reason 
to have lost the confidence of his father. In 1412 he was dismissed 
from the council, and the next year his younger brother Clarence 
was sent to lead the army in France, and at the same time Thomas 
Beaufort was dismissed from the office of chancellor. There is 
a tradition that the prince wished to seize the crown before 
his father's death. Perhaps he had not shown sufficient regard 
for his father's position ; but the king's health was so bad during 
the latter years of his reign that he could hardly attend to business, 
and he died in 1413. 



CHAPTER n. 

Henkt v., 1413-1422 (9 years). 
Born 1388 ; married, 1420, Katharine of France. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — Archbishop Arundel ; Henry Beaufort, 
Bishop of Winchester, afterwards Cardinal ; Sir John Oldcastle ; 
Eichard, Earl of Cambridge ; and Thomas, Duke of Clarence. 

Whatever may have been Henry's conduct as Prince of Wales, 
on his accession he set himself to be a thoroughly good king. His 
first act was to make Henry Beaufort chancellor, and Arundel 
returned to his duties as Archbishop of Canterbury. 

Arundel's first act was to renew the persecution of the Lollards, 
by attacking their leader, Sir John Oldcastle, who was generally 
known, in right of his wife, as Lord Cobham. Oldcastle persecution of 
was a good soldier and a personal friend of the king ; *^® liouards. 
but Henry's influence was not enough to induce him to give up his 
principles, so he was tried for heresy, and condemned to be burnt by 
the civil powers. Before the day came, however, he managed to 
escape from the Tower, and for some years led a wandering life, till 
his capture and execution in 1417. Shortly after his escape a 
rumour reached the king that a great meeting of Lollards was to be 
held in St. Giles's Fields, just outside the walls of London. Prompt 
measures were taken ; the gates were shut, and the country scoured 
by parties of horsemen. Some sixty or seventy men were captured, 
who admitted that their leader was Sir John Oldcastle. These were 
executed, and Henry's vigorous actions prevented the movement 
from becoming serious. 

This trouble, coupled with the danger which always existed from 
the turbulence of the barons and their retainers, determined Henry 
to gratify his ambition by prosecuting the war with Renewal of the 
France, by which he hoped to distract the attention French war. 
of the country from home affairs, and also to turn into a useful 



144 House of Lancaster. [1414- 

channel the energy of his unruly subjects. His father is said to 
have suggested this policy, and he was supported by the nation 
on much the same grounds as secured support for Edward III. 
Henry himself had not a shadow of claim to the French crown ; for 
even that of Edward IH., bad as it was, had clearly descended to 
the line of Mortimer; but the moment was extremely favourable, 
for the struggles between the Burgundians and Orleanists were 
still going on, and he hoped to gain the support of one or other 
of these parties. Accordingly, in 1414, he laid formal claim to the 
French crown ; and as his demand was rejected, he took the advice 
of Parliament and prepared for an invasion of France. The Parha- 
ment granted liberal supplies, and the English property of foreign 
monasteries was handed over to the king. An army was hired in 
the usual way, an earl receiving 13s. M. a day for his services, an 
archer ^d.-, so that, as the ordinary wages of labourers was at this 
time 4f?., Henry had no difficulty in getting troops. 

When all was ready, a " Great Council" {i.e. a meeting of the 
magnates without the inferior clergy and the Commons) gave orders 
Cambridge's ^^^ ^^® "^^^ should begin, and the army was on the 
conspiracy, point of Setting out from Southampton, when a plot 
was discovered against the king. The leaders were Kichard, Earl of 
Cambridge, second son of Edmund, Duke of York, and husband 
of Anne, the sister of Edmund Mortimer ; and Lord Scrope, a relative 
of the archbishop of that name. Their plan was to place Edmund 
Mortimer on the throne. The leaders were both executed without 
disturbance. The Earl of Cambridge left behind him a son, Kichard, 
of whom we shall hear more. 

From Southampton, Henry, with a force of twenty-four thousand 
archers and six thousand men-at-arms, sailed to Havre, landed 

Siege of ^"^^ l^i^l siege to Harfleur, and took it. Dysentery, 

Harfleur. however, broke out in the camp, and when a garrison 
had been told off for the defence of the town, Henry found that 
he had only nine hundred men-at-arms and five thousand archers 
remaining efficient. 

"With these ho rashly determined to march along the coast to 

Calais. On their way the little band suffered terrible privations, and 

Themarciito when they reached Blanchetaque, where Edward HI. 

Calais. j^^^j crossed the Somme, they found the ford guarded, 



1415.] 



Henry V, 



MS 



and there was nothing for it but to march up the river, in hopes of 
finding some means of getting across. But all the fords and bridges 
were guarded, and it was not till the English had advanced almost 
to the source of the Somme that they succeeded in crossing the 
river, and they then found that the constable of France, with the 
Duke of Orleans, and a large army had barred the road to Calais at 
Agincourt. Henry had no choice but to fight or surrender, so he 




Walker i-rJioutallSc 
NOBTH OP FRANCE, TO ILLUSTRATE THE CAMPAieNS OF CRECT AND AGINCOUET. 

and his little army faced the French and prepared to make a brave 
resistance. 

The French are said to have outnumbered the English by Beven 
to one. They had no archers, but relied on their men-at-arms, 
the great body of whom, as at Poitiers, fought Arrangements 
on foot. The constable was a bad- general, and of ti^-e battle, 
he drew up his men in such a fashion as to tlu-ow away all the 



146 



House of Lancaster. 



[1415- 



advantage whicli Ms numbers gave him. At tlie point chosen for 
the fight the road ran between two woods, and the constable drew 
up his forces in three divisions, one behind the other, the front 
stretching from wood to wood. The result of this plan was that 
the front of the first division was only equal in length to that of the 
English, so that the French gave up all chance of outflanking 
their opponents. Had the field of battle been an open plain, the 
long lines of Frenchmen might have wheeled completely round the 






._ ETtfflisTt-^rchera 

Jifan.alArmi 




FIELD OF AGINCOURT, 25TH OCTOBEK, 1415. (ADAPTED FROM SPEUNER.) 



little English army. Moreover, as the French had no archers, only 
their front rank could fight hand-to-hand at a given time ; while 
the English, in open order, could from a distance pour their arrows 
on the mass of unresisting Frenchmen. In addition to this, the 
ground where the French stood was newly harrowed, and the 
men-at-arms in their heavy armour sank knee-deep in the mud. 
Henry fully expected that the French would make the attack, and 
ordered each archer to provide himself with a long stake pointed 
at the end, which he was to stick in the ground before him as a 



1419.] Henry V. 147 

defence against the cavalry ; but so confident did he feel in the 
steadiness of his archers, that he ventured to detach from his force 
two bodies of men-at-arms, who were to creep round the woods and 
attack the French flank at the critical moment. 

When the battle began, Henry found that the French meant to 
stand on the defensive. He therefore ordered his men to attack 
the huge French army. Carrying their stakes, the 
archers advanced, and when well within range 
planted them in the ground, and quietly sent their deadly arrows 
among the crowd of standing Frenchmen. Soon the dying men 
and struggling horses threw the first division into confusion, an.d 
then the English, slinging their bows behind them, rushed sword 
in hand upon the struggling mass. The first division was utterly 
routed, and forced to fall back on the second. A similar manoeuvre 
discomfited that too, and then the English, confident of victory, 
marched to attack the third. At that moment a cry was raised 
that they were being attacked in the rear. The alarm w^as false, 
but the mistake was not discovered till orders had been given to 
kill the prisoners, lest they should take advantage of the danger 
to turn upon their captors. Then the third line was attacked, and 
a charge in flank completed its destruction. 

The constable of France and the Count of Alen9on were killed, 
the Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon were taken prisoners. Over- 
joyed at their success, the English lost no time in Result of the 
marching to Calais and returning to England. Henry battle, 
was received with tumultuous rejoicings, and Parliament, forgetting 
the importance of controlling the purse, voted him in gratitude 
a tax on wool and leather, not for a fixed time, but for life. 

The next year Henry entered into a formal alliance with John, 
Duke of Burgundy, who since the battle of Agincourt K'ew invasion 
had had the chief power in France, and in 1417 he of France, 
again invaded Normandy. The Norman towns fell fast before him, 
and in 1419 Rouen, the capital, was taken. 

Danger now made the French factions unite. Hitherto the 
queen, with her daughter Katharine, had been on the r of the 

side of the Burgundians, and Charles, the dauphin, Duke of 
on that of the Orleanists ; but hopes were now 
entertained that a reconciliation might be effected. Accordingly, a 



148 House of Lancaster. [1419. 

meeting was arranged between the Duke of Burgundy and the 
dauphin at the bridge of Montereau-sur-Yonne. There a dreadful 
crime was committed, for the followers of the dauphin, pressing into 
the wooden cage reserved for the conference, murdered the duke. 

This crime was a gross blunder, for the duke's son Philip and the 
French queen threw themselves into the arms of the English, and 

Treaty of ^^ agreement was made that Henry should marry 

Troyes. Katharine, and become King of France on the 
death of Charles. In the mean time he was to act as Kegent of the 
realm, and levy war on the dauphin. This arrangement, made in 
1420, is known as the treaty of Troyes. Henry at once married 
Katharine, and was received in Paris as heir to the throne, and 
then returned to England, leaving his brother Clarence to manage 
affairs in France. 

Meanwhile the dauphin had gathered to his standard the forces 

of the south of France, where the Armagnacs, as the Orleanists are 

Alliance of the often Called, were strongest ; and called to his aid the 

^^^scots^^*^ Scots, who, as was usual during this war, invaded 

Defeat of the north of England, and also sent troops to France. 

Beaug-e. Clarence was foolish enough to attempt to surprise 

the allied army by leaving his archers behind and rapidly marching 

with men-at-arms only to Beaugd. There he met with a severe 

defeat, and was himself killed, in 1421. 

To repair this disaster Henry hurried back from England and 
besieged Meaux, a strong fortress near Paris. This he took after a 

Death of great eJSbrt, in 1421. The same year a son was born 
Senry. \q j^im at Windsor ; but before Henry could return, 
an attack of dysentery, then the scourge of armies, put an end to his 
life, in the thirty-fourth j'-ear of his age, and the ninth of his reign. 

Henry V.'s character has been much praised. There is no 
question that he was a great warrior and an able man; but he 
was terribly severe to the Lollards, and his ambition cost England 
many lives and much misery. A chronicler says of him, " He had 
been of high and great courage, valiant in arms, prudent, sage, 
great in justice, who without respect of persons did right for small 
and great. He was feared and revered of hia relations, subjects, 
and neighbours." 



CHAPTER m, 

Henry VI., 1422-[detlironed] 1461 (39 years), [died] 1471. 
Born 1421 ; married, 1446, Margaret of Anjou. 

Chief Characters of the Eeign. — John, Duke of Bedford ; Humphrey, 
Duke of Gloucester ; Cardinal Beaufort ; Jeanne Dare ; William de la 
Pole, Earl of Suffolk ; Richard, Duke of York ; John, Earl of Somer- 
set ; and Edmund, Duke of Somerset ; Richard Neville, Earl of Salis- 
bury ; and his son Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick (the king-maker). 

Heney's little son was only nine months old when his father died, 
so the chief power rested in the hands of the council, and it was 
arranged that his uncle, John, Duke of Bedford, should Arrangements 
be protector of the realm, but that in his absence minorityof the 
Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, should hold that king-, 

position, and be the king's chief counsellor. As a rule, Bedford 
was busy in France, so that Gloucester had the chief power, and 
next to him stood Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester. 

The late king wished the regency of France to be held by the 
Duke of Burgundy; but that prince declined it, and the post fell 
to the lot of Bedford. John, Duke of Bedford, was a Bedford's 
man of noble character. He was thoroughly dis- aUiance. 
interested, and, though he was not as brilliant as the late king, he 
combined Henry's solid talents with some of the nobleness of 
character which distinguished the Black Prince. His first care 
was to secure the English dominions from attack. The English 
territory north of the Loire was something in the form of a wedge 
driven from the sea-coast into the centre of France, and having its 
point at Paris. To secure the sides of this wedge, Bedford drew 
close his alliance with Burgundy in the east and Brittany in the 
west, and, to strengthen the union, he and Arthur of Kichemont, 
the brother of the Duke of Brittany, married sisters of the Duke 
of Burgundy. 



i^o House of Lancaster. [1423- 

Two battles secured his communication with these allies. Crevant, 

in 1423, drove the French out of the district between Paris and 

Crevant and Burgundy, and Verneuil, in 1424, cleared the district 

verneaii. between Paris and Brittany, so that the French were 
forced to confine themselves to the lands south of the river Loire. 
To deprive the French of Scottish aid, James, King of Scotland, was 
released and sent home with an English wife, Jane Beaufort, grand- 
daughter of John of Gaunt. (See p. 152). 

Unfortunately, the imbecile Charles VI. died in 1422, very soon 

after Henry, and this deprived the English of the pretence of being 

Fouy of t^6 ^lli^s of *^^ French king, and made the dauphin, 

Gloucester, now Charles YII., the rightful champion of the French 
cause. A worse blow still was struck at the English power by the 
folly of the Duke of Gloucester. That nobleman married Jacqueline 
of Hainault, the divorced wife of a relation of the Duke of Burgundy. 
She had extensive lands in the Netherlands, to which the Duke of 
Burgundy hoped to succeed ; and as Gloucester tried to push his 
wife's claims by arms, the Duke of Burgundy's friendship for 
England naturally cooled. At home, too, Gloucester caused trouble 
by quarrelling with his uncle Beaufort, and Bedford had to come 
over to England to arrange their differences. 

The old difficulties which had caused the loss of France in the 
time of Edward III. now began to tell upon the English. Men and 
Siege of money were more difficult to get, while the French 
Orleans. j^^d given up their feudal armies and had hired pro- 
fessional soldiers, after the English fashion. The great want of the 
French was enthusiasm and belief in their ovm power, and this was 
supplied as follows. In 1428 Bedford decided to lay siege to 
Orleans. This town lies on the north bank of the river Loire, 
and, therefore, acted as a gate by which the French might at any 
time enter the English territory. In the siege the English were 
unlucky from the first. One of their best generals, the Earl of 
Salisbury, was killed by a cannon-shot while he was examining 
the defences, and though at Eouvray Sir John Fastolf cleverly beat 
off a party of French who attacked a convoy of herrings under 
his charge, the siege made slow progress. 

Just at this moment there arrived in Charles's camp a peasant 
girl of Domremy, Jeanne Dare, who was filled with a generous 



1436.] Henry VI. 151 

enthusiasm for her country, and assured Charles that, if she were 
allowed to lead the soldiers, she would raise the 

. ' . , Jeanne Dare. 

siege and conduct him in triumph to be crowned at 
Rheims, like all the French kings before him. The appearance 
of Jeanne gave just the spark of enthusiasm that was needed ; the 
French under her were a match for the English, and drove them 
from Orleans. The Earl of Suflfolk was captured at Jargeau ; Sir 
John Talbot was defeated and taken at Patay; and within the 
year Charles VII. was crowned at Rheims. The effort, however, 
died away ; the Maid of Orleans was captured and burnt as a heretic, 
and seven years elapsed before the French made any further progress 
in their efforts to rid themselves of the invaders. 

At home the most important event of the time was the passing 
of an act of Parliament, in 1431, to restrict the right of voting for 
knights of the shire to persons possessing freeholds in 
the shire to the value of forty shiUings a year. By sMiimg" 
this act all copyholders and villems were disfran- ®® oiders. 
chised, and the forty-shilling freeholders were the only voters for 
the counties till the Reform Bill of 1832. 

Unfortunately, in 1433 Bedford himself made a great mistake. 
His Burgundian wife died, and he very soon afterwards married 
Jacquetta of Luxemburg, the sister of the Count of Quarrel with. 
St. Pol. The lands of this nobleman lay between the Burgundy. 
possessions of Burgundy and those of France, and he was in the 
habit of playing off one against the other ; the consequence was 
that the Duke of Burgundy became estranged from Bedford, and 
prepared to go over to the side of Charles VII. To make matters 
worse, Bedford's health declined, and he was less able to conduct 
the difficult struggle. Under these circumstances, in 1435 the pope 
arranged a congress at Arras to try and bring about peace. Most 
of the European states sent ambassadors, and the Duke of Burgundy 
secretly agreed that, if the English did not accept the French terms, 
he would take up arms against them. The French offered to give 
the English Normandy and Guienne in exchange for Deatii of 
their claim on the French crown. These terms were Bedford, 
refused. Burgundy joined the French, and at the same moment 
Bedford, worn out by overwork and disappointment, died at Rouen. 

Bedford was succeeded by Richard, Duke of York, son of the 



152 House of Lancaster. [1435- 

Earl of Cambridge, who had been executed in 1415. He was an 
able man, but was unable to cope with the united Burgundians and 
French, who now pressed heavily on the English. Paris was aban- 
doned in 1440, and the English with difficulty maintained them- 
selves in Normandy. In hopes of dividing the French, the Duke 
of Orleans, captured at Agincourt, was released in 1440 ; but the 
plan had no success. 

During these years the chief power in England lay in the hands 
of Gloucester and Beaufort. They were constantly at variance, and 
Quarrels in the ^* ^^^ taxed Bedford's powers to keep the peace. In 
royal family. 1426 Beaufort was made a cardinal, which gave 
Gloucester a fresh opportunity for attacking him, but Parliament 
granted him a dispensation from the Statute of Praemunire, which 
he had broken by receiving an appointment from Eome. As the 
war went on, two parties appeared in England, one for peace, the 
other for war. Bedford had been wishful for peace, and Beaufort 
supported his views; but Gloucester, with the young nobles and 
professional soldiers, took the opposite side. Gloucester was a 
popular man, and had a reputation for chivalry which gained him 
the title of " Good," but it is hard to see why he deserved it. To 
the same party as the cardinal belonged his nephews, John Beau- 
fortji Duke of Somerset, who died in 1444, leaving an only 

1 THE BEAUFORTS. 

John of Gaunt, = Katharine Swynford. 

d. 1399. I 

, L- I 

John, Earl of Somerset, d. 1410. Henry, Cardinal Beaufort, d. 1447. 



\ I J 

Katharine = Owen John, Duke Edmund, Jane, 

of France. I Tudor. of Somerset, Duke of m. James I. 

d. 1444. Somerset, of Scotland. 



killed 1455. 



Edmund Tudor, = Margaret. 
Earl of Richmond. 



Henry VTI. 
1485-1509. 



r I I 

Henry, Duke of Edmund, Duke of John, 

Somerset, executed after Somerset, executed after killed at Tewkesbury 
Hexham 1463. Tewkesbury 1471. 1471. 



1450.] Henry VL i53 

daughter, Margaret, and his brother Edmund, who, after his death, 
succeeded to the title. Another adherent was William de la Pole, 
Earl of Suffolk, grandson of the minister of Richard II. When 
Henry grew up, his gentle disposition led him to take the same 
side, so that there was thus formed a court party in favour of 
peace, and an opposition, or nobleman's party, in favour of war. 

In 1445 the peace party carried out a great stroke of policy, 
by negotiating a marriage between Henry and Margaret of Anjou, 
the daughter of Rene, Count of Anjou and Maine, and King's 
niece of the French queen. It was hoped that this "carriage. ! 
would lead to peace, and, to pave the way, the English gave up to 
Rene the counties of Anjou and Maine, which had been long in their 
hands. This marriage was arranged by the Earl of Suffolk, who 
brought over the young queen ; and, though he was thanked for his 
services by Parliament, the step was so hated in the country that 
it was the beginning of Suffolk's unpopularity. Margaret was a 
woman of great force and impetuosity ; she soon acquired a com- 
plete ascendency over the mind of Henry, and as she reposed 
confidence in Suffolk, he gained discredit for any mistakes that were 
made, especially as Cardinal Beaufort was now an old man. 

Of course the power of Suffolk was viewed with jealousy by 
Gloucester, and in 1447, at the Parhament of Bury St. Edmunds, 
the court party determined to strike a blow at their ^^^^^^ ^^^ 
opponents by arresting Gloucester on a charge of high death of 
treason. This was carried out, and five days after °^"^®^ ^^' 
his arrest Gloucester died in prison. As his health was wretched, 
there is every reason to suppose that his death was due to natural 
causes, but at the time it was generally believed that he had been 
murdered. Henry had as yet no children, so -^^^^^^^^^-^ 
Richard, Duke of York, as representative of the elder heir to the 
line of the descendants of Edward III. (see pedigree 
XI.), became heir-apparent to the throne, and he also succeeded 
Gloucester as leader of the opposition. The same year Cardinal 
Beaufort died, and Somerset and Suffolk were the most prominent 
men left about the court. 

Meanwhile things began to look very black in France. Brittany 
had joined the French, the English had been driven Rapid loss 
from Rouen in 1449, and in the north Bayeux, Caen, of France. 



154 House of Lancaster. [1450- 

and Cherbourg were lost in 1450, and Calais alone remained in 
English hands. 

At home the heavy drain of men and money had begun to tell ; 

the government had hard work to get funds to pay the troops, or 

to find soldiers to replace those who had fallen. 

Disastrous . ^ 

condition of The power of the king was so weak that frightful 
e coun ry. (jjgQj.(3^ej. existed in the country. There was no 
respect for the law among the great nobles. In Norfolk a gentle- 
man named John Paston obtained a house and property in a lawsuit. 
The defeated suitor, Lord Molejms, who quite unjustly claimed the 
manor of Gresham, collected a force of one thousand men, and 
attacked the house while the owner was away, taking the beams 
from under the bedroom of his wife to make her leave the place. 
In the north the Percies and the Nevilles were carrying on a private 
war of their own, and the whole country was in disorder. Every- 
thing showed the need of a change. ' 

In this state of affairs Suffolk's rule became most unpopular, and 
in several places riots occurred. In one of these, Moleyns, Bishop 
of Chichester, who had gone down to Portsmouth to 
offer the sailors a portion of their pay instead of the 
whole, was murdered; and another minister, Ascough, Bishop of 
Salisbury, was seized in his own diocese, and murdered at Edington, 
in Wiltshire. Between these two events an attack was made in 
Parhament on Suffolk himself. He was impeached; but, having 
thrown himself on the king's mercy, was banished for five years. 
This did not satisfy his enemies, and on his way to Calais the ship 
was boarded, and he was taken out of it ; and shortly afterwards he 
was taken on board a small boat and beheaded, and his body was 
flung on the shore of Kent. 

Immediately after the death of Suffolk, the Kentishmen rose in 
arms, under Jack Cade, an Irishman who had been a retainer of Sir 
Cade's Thomas Dacre, but who gave out that his name was 
-• L rebeUion. Mortimer, and that he was a cousin of the Duke of 
York. Followers flocked to his banner from Surrey and Sussex as 
regularly as though the militia had been called out, and with a large 
force he marched on London, proclaiming that he was going to set 
right the grievances of the common people and reform the govern- 
ment. A force that was sent against him, under Sir Humphrey 



1452.] Henry VI. 155 

and William Stafford, was routed at Sevenoaks. The king un- 
wisely withdrew to Coventry, and Cade entered 
London without opposition. There the rebels seized 
Lord Say, another of Suffolk's ministers, and beheaded him ; and 
the same fate befell the sheriff of Kent. The disorderly conduct of 
the rebels roused the anger of the Londoners, and a fierce battle 
was fought on London Bridge. In this the Londoners got the 
better. Cade's men began to despair of success, and accepted 
the terms which were offered by the government. The rebel army 
dispersed, but Cade himself kept a few followers, and retreated into 
Kent, whither he was pursued by Iden, the new sheriff, captured, 
and summarily executed. His head was placed on London Bridge, 
and it is said that it was the twenty-fourth which had been placed 
there within the year. 

In this way Suffolk and his supporters, Moleyns, Ascough, 
and Lord Say, had been disposed of; but the government still 

remained in the hands of Edmund Beaufort, who was „ 

' Formation of 

supported by the queen, Percy, Earl of Northumber- a Yorkist , 
land, and Lord Clifford, while the Duke of York was ^^^ ^* 
assisted by Lord Salisbury and his son, who was, by right of his 
wife. Earl of Warwick. In our days these noblemen would have 
brought a motion of want of confidence against the ministry ; but 
then it was hard to get rid of an unpopular minister except by 
impeaching him, or murdering him, or by successful insurrection 
against the king. For in those days the king and not the ministry 
was regarded as responsible for the government of the country. As 
each of these nobles was at the head of a band of retainers, any 
attempt to appeal to force was certain to lead to civil war. 

The hope of York's friends was that Henry would die without 
children, in which case York would have had the best claim to 
succeed to the tbrone ; and in 1451 they tried to get 

' , . •' , ° Quarrel 

Parliament to declare him the king's heir, but the between York 
proposal was not carried out. In 1452 York collected 
an army, and demanded the dismissal of Somerset (Edmund Beau- 
fort). The king ordered Somerset's arrest, on which York disbanded 
his followers, but was in his turn arrested and compelled to swear 
allegiance to Henry. 
AVhile Somerset and York were quarrelling in England, matters 



156 House of Lancaster, [1452- 

liad been going from bad to worse in France. Normandy had been 
altogether lost, but the English were still struggling 
to retain possession of the southern provinces. The 
struggle did not last long ; Guienne and Gascony were lost in 1451, 
and in 1453, in an attempt to recover them, Talbot, Earl of 
Shrewsbury, the best general the English had, was killed with his 
son in the battle of Chatillon, and the loss of all France but Calais 
immediately followed. 

These disasters were ascribed by the nation to the incapacity of 

Somerset, and to some extent they were right. Henry had no idea 

Weakness of ^^ being a despot like Eichard II. ; but he was in- 

thekinff. capable himself, and was unfortunate in not being 
aided by capable friends. He was not unjust, but he was not strong 
enough to enforce justice; and consequently those who smarted 
under the loss of France, or were ruined by the loss of their trade 
with Guienne — to which country we sent our wool in exchange for 
■vvine — or who wished for a minister who could enforce law and order, 
were prepared to force Henry to put York in Somerset's place. 

Almost at the same time that the defeat in Guienne occurred, 
Henry was taken ill. Perhaps he was tainted with the madness of 

Illness of his grandfather, Charles of France ; but, be this as it 

Henry. may, his illness completely upset the balance of his 

mind, and made him for a time an idiot. About three months 

_. ^, ^ after his seizure his wife bore a son, who was called 

Birth, of a ' ,. /v • 

Prince of Edward. These events altered the state of affairs. 
The birth of a prince destroyed York's hope of 
succession, but the madness of the king made a protector for the 
kingdom necessary, and in 1454 the lords chose him to till the place. 
In making this appointment, the lords were careful to say that 
nothing was to prejudice the rights of the little prince. 

No sooner was the king's support withdrawn than Somerset was 

thrown into prison; but the next year, 1455, Henry recovered, 

Beginning of York was dismissed, and Somerset was released and 

the civil war. restored to influence. To get rid of him, York, 

Salisbury, and Warwick called their supporters together, and marched 

First battle of ^^ London. Somerset, with the king, marched 

St. Aiban's. to meet them as far as St. Alban's, on the Watling 

Street, and there the first battle of the Wars of the Roses was 



1460.] Henry VJ. 157 

fought, May, 1455. In the fight the Lancastrians were beaten, the 
Duke of Somerset, the Earl of Northumberland, and Lord CliEford 
were slain, and Henry himself was taken prisoner. The result of 
the battle was to destroy the old party of Somerset, and Henry had 
no choice but to receive York into his councils. The king's mind 
was now thoroughly weakened, and in November he was again 
insane. York again became protector till the king's restoration to 
health in 1456. For some time peace was maintained, and the 
representatives of each party went in procession to St. Paul's, to 
pray for the souls of those slain at St. Alban's. Unfortunately 
Margaret took Somerset's place as York's antagonist, and her action 
brought on a renewal of the war. 

In 1459 Lord Sahsbury was marching with his retainers from 
Middleham Castle in Yorkshire, to Ludlow in Shropshire, the 
principal seat of the Duke of York, when the queen ^. 
Bent Lord Audley to arrest him. Lord Audley was renewed, 
beaten off and killed at the battle of Bloreheath, and Battle of 
then the Earls of Salisbury and Warwick joined York 
at Ludlow. Henry marched on that town, and a battle was 
expected, when panic seized the Yorkist ranks and the rebel army 
fled in all directions. York took refuge in Ireland, panic at 
where he had once been deputy. Salisbury and i-udiow. 
Warwick fled to Calais, of which town Warwick had been governor 
since the battle of St. Alban's, and with them went young Edward, 
Earl of March, the eldest son of the Duke of York. 

The king then called a Parliament at Coventry, and in it York, 
Salisbury, Warwick, March, and many of their followers, were 
attainted ^ by Act of Parliament. This only served to Battle of 
aggravate the Yorkists, and the three earls made Northampton, 
their way to Kent, seized London, where Salisbury was left as 
governor, and then marched on Coventry. The king met them at 
Northampton, July, 1460, but was again defeated, and a number of 
Lancastrian lords were slain. 

* A Bill of attainder is a bill brought into Parliament for attainting, 
condemning, and executing a person for high treason. By attainting is 
meant corrupting the blood, so that the attainted person can neither possess 
property, nor transmit it to his heirs. What he has is forfeited to the 
Crown. An attaint also followed upon a sentence in a court of law of 
death for treason or felony. An attainted person was usually executed, 
but sometimes only the penalty of forfeiture was enforced. 



158 House of Lancaster. [i46o. 

The Yorkists now called a Parliament at London, and in this the 

Duke of York, as Henry of Lancaster had done before him, claimed 

„ , , . the crown, as the descendant of Lionel, Duke of 
York claims ' ' 

the crown, and Clarence. The lords admitted the claim, but, un- 
willing to depose the son of Henry V., arranged a 
compromise, by which Henry was to be king for life, and York was 
to succeed him. The Prince of Wales was thus passed over. 

Henry had not been able to say a word for his son, but Margaret 

could not submit to such an exclusion. In the north the Lancas- 

trians were still powerful, and the queen, aided by 

renews the Clifford, Somerset, and Northumberland (sons of the 

noblemen slain at St. Alban's), and the Earl of 

Westmoreland, collected a powerful army and utterly defeated 

Battle of York and Salisbury at the battle of Wakefield. 

Wakefield. There York was slain and Salisbury was taken and 

executed, and for a moment it seemed that the tide had turned. 

The battle of Wakefield was fought on December 29, and on 

February 3 the Earl of March routed Jasper Tudor, Earl of 

Battle of Pembroke, Henry's half-brother, at the battle of 

^°cross!^ ° Mortimer's Cross, in Herefordshire. Meanwhile the 

Second battle ^^^^^ marched south and beat Warwick at the second 

of St. Alban's. battle of St. Alban's, February 17, rescued the king, 

and cleared the road to London. It was a question whether Margaret 

or Edward would now reach London first ; but Edward won the race, 

and on the 28th of the same month he entered London, and was 

received by the citizens as king. From that moment his reign begins. 

The war which had begun in a struggle for the reins of govern- 

The rival nient thus resulted in the overthrow of the House 

roses. Qf Lancaster and the placing on the throne of the 

House of York. From the red and white roses which were 

respectively adopted as the badges of the Lancastrians and 

Yorkists, these wars are often called the " wars of the Roses." 



CHAPTER IV. 

Edwakd IV., 1461-1483 (22 years). 
Born 1441 ; married, 1464, EKzabeth Woodville. 

Chef Characters of the Reign. — The Earl of "Warwick, and his brother John 
Neville, Marquess of Montagu ; George, Duke of Clarence ; Queen 
Margaret ; Edmund, Duke of Somerset ; Lord Rivers. 

The new king did not waste time over his coronation, for the 
moment was favourable for striking a decisive blow. Margaret's 
rude northerners had sacked S^t. Albans, and their ^out of 
cruelty and rapacity had roused the southerners to Margaret, 
rally to his standard. Hitherto the people had taken little interest 
in the war, and the battles had mostly been fought by the retainers, 
but now the men of the rich counties of Essex and Kent joined the 
Yorkist ranks, and with a powerful army Edward Battle of 
took the northern road in pursuit of Margaret. At ferrybridge. 
Ferrybridge he drove Lord Clifford from the banks of the Aire, 
and made his way into the plain of York; and at Battle of 
Towton, between Leeds and that city, he thoroughly Towton. 
beat the Lancastrians in a pitched battle. It is said that thirty- 
eight thousand corpses were buried on the field. This battle gave 
Edward the complete command of the great plain of York, which 
secured his power in the north. Twice, with Scottish and French 
aid, Margaret tried to rally ; but at Hedgeley Moor 
and Hexham, 1464, she was again defeated, and HedgeieyHcor 
forced to take refuge at the court of her cousin, ^^^ Hexham. 
Louis XL of France. The next year, 1465, Henry, who had 
eluded pursuit in Lancashire and Westmoreland, was betrayed 
near Clitheroe, and imprisoned in the Tower of London. 

In the wars of the Roses, the north, in which the feudal lords 
were most powerful, was Lancastrian ; the south, in which at that 
time the wealth of the country was situated, and in which the great 



i6o House of York. [i46i- 

towns, sucli as London, Norwich, Bristol, and Coventiy, took the 
Yorkists and lead, was Yorkist. At Towton the townsmen fought 
liancastrians. under their own banners — the "Ship" of Bristol, 
the " Black Earn " of Coventry. We may almost say that the 
fight was one between mediaeval and modern England, in which the 
old feudal families of the north were destroyed. 

Edward had hardly succeeded in crushing the Lancastrians when 
he found himself involved in new difficulties. His great trouble was 

■Warwick's tis relation to "Warwick, who had had so large a 
poHcy. share in placing Edward on the throne that he was 
called the king-maker. That nobleman, who was exceedingly rich, 
so that he was able to maintain an army of retainers, and who was 
also crafty and ambitious, expected to have considerable influence. 
He wished Edward to marry a French princess, and perhaps hoped 
to play through her the part that Suffolk had played through 
Margaret of Anjou. 

This scheme was defeated by Edward's falling in love with and 
marrying Elizabeth Woodville (daughter of Jacquetta of Luxem- 

Edward's ^^^g, by her second marriage with Kichard Woodville, 

marriage. jj^rl Rivers), the widow of Grey, Lord Ferrers of 
Groby. Edward then began to promote his wife's relations, to the 
disgust of Warwick. A few years later he married his sister 
Margaret to the Duke of Burgundy, the mortal foe of Louis XL, 
King of France. 

Meanwhile Warwick bided his time, and in 1469 he married his 

daughter Isabella to George, Duke of Clarence, the younger brother 

of Edward, thus detaching him from the king. He 

Conspiracy of ' ° " . - , 

Warwick and then began to look out for an opportunity of de- 
c arence. throning Edward. Li 1469 a rebellion broke out in 
the north, and the rebels, marching to Banbury, defeated and killed 
Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, at the battle of Edgecote. At the 
same time, another party seized Earl Rivers and his son. Sir John 
Woodville, and beheaded them. These events deprived Edward 
of his supporters, and he fell for a time into the hands of Warwick 
and Clarence, and was confined in Middleham Castle, in Yorkshire. 
Warwick, however, soon found that Edward was too popular to be 
kept a prisoner, and he was released about Christmas the same year. 
In the spring of 1470 a new insurrection broke out in Lincolnshire ; 



I 



1471.] Edward IV. i6r 

but this time Edward crushed it near Stamford, in a battle afterwards 
known as Losecoat Field, and Warwick and Clarence, fearing that 
Edward's vengeance would fall on them, fled to France. 

There they entered into a league with Margaret, to marry her 
son Edward to Warwick's daughter Anne, and to replace Henry 
on the throne, and, accordingly, in September, 1471, Warwick's 
they landed at Dartmouth and marched against success. 
Edward. The king was at Doncaster, and a battle was imminent, 
when he found that Warwick's brother. Lord Montagu, the victor at 
Hexham, whom he had hitherto trusted, was a traitor. There was 
nothing for it but flight, and he escaped by sea to his brother-in-law, 
Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, takmg with him his younger 
brother Eichard, Duke of Glloucester. Meanwhile the queen took 
sanctuary at Westminster, where her eldest son Edward was born. 
Warwick then marchod to London, drew Henry from the Tower, 
and placed him on the throne. 

Edward did not long stay abroad ; he got a little help from the 
Duke of Burgundy, and, in 1471, landed at Eavenspur, in Yorkshire, 
stating that he was coming to regain his estates. Return of 
Numbers flocked to his standard ; and at Coventry Ecjward. 
his brother Clarence, who had naturally changed his mind, since 
Warwick had taken Henry's side, joined him. Their combined 
forces marched on London, and took the queen from the sanctuary. 
Edward then tm-ned to face Warwick, and beat him at the 
battle of Barnet, where Warwick was killed. The same day 
Margaret, with a new army, landed at Weymouth. -» tti 
She had two courses open to her ; one to march on Bamet and 
London and rescue Henry, the other to make her ®^ ^^ ^"^' 
way through Wales to the north, districts in which the Lancastrians 
were strong. Edward moved to Wiadsor and forced Margaret to 
choose. She decided for Wales, and marched to Bristol. The 
lowest bridge over the Severn was at Gloucester, but that town was 
Yorkist, and she was therefore forced to move on Tewkesbury. 
There Edward caught her up, and in a terrible battle, in which his 
brother Eichard, the young Duke of Gloucester, led the attack, 
Margaret's hopes were again shattered. She remained a prisoner, 
her son Edward perished on the field, either in fight or in cold 
blood, and her supporter, the Duke of Somerset, was beheaded. 

M 



1 62 House of York, \x^i\. 

From Tewkesbury Edward marched to London, and the day of 
his entry saw the death of Henry. Whether he died a natural 

Death of death or was murdered, is uncertain. In after-times 

Henry VI. Gloucester was blamed for the death of both father and 
son. Margaret was, after a time, handed over to the King of France. 

In 1475 Edward, in alliance with the Duke of Burgundy, crossed 
to Calais and invaded France. Louis XL, however, was anxious 
Invasion of iiot to involve France in war, and made a treaty with 
France. Edward at the bridge of Pecquigny. For a large 
sum of money and a yearly pension, Edward agreed to release 
Margaret and to retire to England, while Louis promised that the 
dauphin should marry Edward's daughter Elizabeth. 

Three years later, in 1478, Edward took an opportunity to 
execute his brother Clarence, whom he had never trusted since his 

Deaths of defection to Warwick; and in 1483 Edward died 
^^Edward'^*^ somewhat unexpectedly, at the age of forty-two. On 

Policy of ^® whole, Edward gained for the country most of the 
Edward IV. results at which the Yorkists aimed. During the 
first ten years of his reign there was not much improvement, but 
after the faU of Warwick, and the attainders and forfeiture of 
Lancastrian property that followed the battle of Tewkesbury, the 
nobles, who had been the great causes of disorder, were either killed 
off, or were so much impoverished that the difficulty of keeping order 
became much less. Edward's strong rule was a great advantage to 
the merchants and industrial classes who wanted peace and order, 
and had therefore supported the Yorkists ; its opponents were 
the old nobility who looked back regretfully to the old state of 
things. Edward established a spy system by which he well knew 
what was going on ; he saw himself to the administration of justice, 
tried, by his affability, to make friends with the middle classes, and, 
in short, began the system which was continued by the Tudors, in 
which the sovereigns were the patrons of the commons but the 
enemies of the nobility. For this, however, the wealthy had to 
pay ; and Edward invented the system of benevolences, by which 
men of means were asked of their goodness to contribute to the 
needs of the government. As they did not dare to refuse, the plan was 
a distinct violation of the principle that supplies should be voted 
by Parliament only, but it did not meet with any active resistance. 



CHAPTER V. 

Edwaed y., 1483 (2 months, April to June), 
Bom 1470, died 1483. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — Richard, Duke of Gloucester ; Anthony 
Lord Rivers ; Lord Hastings ; the Duke of Buckingham. 

The death of Edward gave the throne to his son, now thirteen 
years of age. Nothing could be more alarming to the country 
than the prospect of another minority like that of Dangers of a 
Richard II., or more recently that of Henry VI. minority. 
" Woe to thee, land, when thy king is a child," was a proverb well 
impressed by hard experience on the English mind, and there is no 
wonder that an attempt was soon made to depose him. 

Hardly was Edward dead than a struggle began for the possession 
of the reins of power. Of the competitors the most important were, 
first, the family of Woodville, the relations of the struggle for 
queen, who had been promoted by Edward, to the power. 
disgust of Warwick and the old nobility. Their leaders were the 
queen, her brother Anthony Lord Rivers, and her son Sir Richard 
Grey. Then came the old nobihty, of whom the most important were 
Staflford, Duke of Buckingham,! a descendant of Thomas of Wood- 

» GENEALOGY OF THE STAFFORD S. 
Edmund, = Anne, daughter of Thomas, Duke of Gloucester, 

fifth Earl of Stafford, I and granddaughter of Edward III. 

Humphrey, 

created Duke of Buckingham, 

killed at Northampton 1460. 



Humphrey, Earl of Stafford, Sir Henry Stafford, m. Margaret, 

killed at St. Alban's 1455. Countess of Richmond, 

I mother of Henry 

Henry, Duke of Buckingham, VII. by her first 

beheaded 1483. husband. 

Edward, Duke of Buckingham, 
beheaded 1521. 



164 House of York, diss. 

stock, youngest son of Edward III. ; Percy, Earl of Northumberland ; 

and Lord Stanley, husband of Margaret, daughter of John, Duke of 

Somerset. Nest to them stood the lords of the Council faithful to 

the house of York, but opposed to the Woodvilles, the most notable 

of whom were Lord Hastings and John, Lord Howard. Last came 

Richard, Duke of Gloucester, the younger brother of the late king. 

Richard had been a faithful friend to his brother. A mere boy 

during the early wars, he had, as a young man of twenty, gone with 

his brother into exile, and had distinguished himself 
Character of . 

Riciiarciof by his valour at Barnet and Tewkesbury. Since 
Gloucester. ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ France in 1475, and had lately 

been acting as governor of the north of England, in which capacity 

he had carried on a war with Scotland in 1478. His rule in the 

north had been good, and there he seems to have been deservedly 

popular. He was a man of great abihty, but, like most of the 

men of his time, quite unscrupulous as to his means. The charge 

that he had had a hand in the death of both Henry VI. and his son 

was made when Richard's name was a butt for abuse, and it cannot 

be either proved or disproved. 

When the king died. Rivers and his friends were in London with 

Hastings, the Prince of Wales was at Ludlow, Gloucester was at 

York, and Buckingham, Howard, and Stanley were 
Gloucester ' . 

made in the country. The Woodvilles were the first to 

protector. jnove. They sent to Ludlow, and were escorting the 
young king to London, when they were met at Stony Stratford by 
Gloucester and Buckingham, who were making common cause. 
These noblemen seized Lord Rivers and Sir Richard Grey, and sent 
them prisoners to the north, while thej^^ themselves marched with 
the young king to London. There Gloucester was proclaimed 
protector of the kingdom, so that he had the chief power in his 
own hands. His next step was to get rid of Hastings, whom he 
caused to be suddenly executed on a false charge of conspiracy. 

He then boldly claimed the crown on the absurd ground that 

Edward's marriage with Elizabeth Woodville was illegal, because 

Fall of liG had already been betrothed to another lady, 

Edward V. ^^^ ^]^^^ ^j^g right of Clarence's children was barred 
by their father's attainder. However, as in the case of Henry IV. 
only a pretext was wanted, and as Richard had already secured the 



1483.] Richai'd III, 165 

power, he had Httle difficulty in getting the title, of king. Before 
the end of June, a body of lords and others took upon themselves 
to ojBfer the crown to Richard, which he accepted ; and at the same 
time Rivers and Grey were executed at Pontefract Caistle, in 
Yorkshire. 



Richard HI., 1483-1485 (2 years). 
Bom 1450 ; married, 1473, Anne Neville. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — Henry of Richmond ; the Duke of Buck- 
ingham ; Bishop Morton ; Lord Stanley. 

Richaed's accession seems to have been received by the nation 
without surprise. It was a relief from the dangers of a long minority, 
and his good reputation in Yorkshire promised that Richard's 
he would make a successful king. He began his popularity, 
reign by making a progress through the south, where he was well 
received, and he won popularity by refusing offers of money which 
were made to him by some of the citizens. 

It was, however, during this progress that a crime which in the 
end lost him his throne was committed ; for it is certain that during 
his absence the two young princes, Edward and his Murder of the 
brother, Richard Duke of York, who were living in princes, 
the Tower, disappeared, and it was generally believed that they had 
been murdered. 

Those who thought that the princes had been murdered now turned 
then' hopes to Henry of Richmond, the son of Margaret Beaufort, 
great granddaughter of John of Gaunt, and her first Lancastrian 
husband, Edmund Tudor, the son of Katharine of plots. 
France and her Welsh husband, Owen Tudor. His chief supporter 
was Morton, Bishop of Ely, who had been a friend of Hastings, 
and since his death had been living in the custody of Buckingham. 
That nobleman was much disappointed with Richard, because he 
had not received the post of constable of England, to which he 



1 66 House of York. ti483- 

thought he had a claim ; and he was, therefore, won over by his 
prisoner, Morton, to join in a movement for placing Henry of Eich- 
mond on the throne. The plan included a rebellion of Buckingham 
in Wales, and a landing in Devonshire of Henry, who was now an 
exile in Brittany. It failed, however, because heavy rains flooded 
the Severn so much that Buckingham could not ford it, and the 
bridges were held for the king. Consequently, when Henry reached 
Plymouth, he found no one to help him, so retired ; and Bucking- 
ham's forces having dispersed, he himself was taken, and executed 
at Salisbury 1483. 

Kichard now seemed more secure than ever. He held a 
Parliament, in which he passed two very good laws, one forbidding 
Difficulty of the "^^^ collection of benevolences, the other the keeping 

succession. Qf retainers ; but he did not live to see them enforced. 
Unfortunately for him, his only son Edward died in 1484, and as he 
had declared the children of the late king to be illegitimate, and as 
those of Clarence were debarred from the succession by the attainder 
of their father, he appointed as his heir John de la Pole, Earl of 
Lincoln, the son of his sister Elizabeth by a son of the Duke of 
Suffolk, the murdered minister of Henry VI. 

Morton now formed a plan for marrying Henry of Eichmond 

to Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of Edward IV., and so uniting the 

claims of the houses of York and Beaufort. This 

of the rival scheme frightened Eichard so much that he for a 
houses. time, as his wife was dead, thought of marrying 
Elizabeth himself. He even seems to have won the favom' of the 
late queen, but the suggestion came to nothing. 

Meanwhile Eichmond had not been idle. With the aid of the 

Earl of Oxford, he had collected forces in France, and in August, 

Bichmond's l^^^j ^® landed at Milford Haven, in Wales. 

invasion. Thcnce he marched to Stafford, where he was 
assured of the support of the Lord Stanley, who was, however, 
unable to join him openly, because Eichard had seized his eldest 
son as a hostage. Meanwhile Eichard was joined by John Howard, 
Duke of Norfolk, and the Earl of Northumberland, and collected 
his forces at Leicester. Thence he marched to fight Eichmond at 
Bosworth Field. 

In the battle that followed Norfolk fought bravely, but Stanley 



1485.] 



Richard III. 



167 



went over to the enemy, and Northumberland, as was likely in an 
Battle of old Lancastrian, stood aloof. The fight raged chiefly 
Bosworth. between Richard's own followers and those ot 
Richmond. The king made terrible exertions, and was within an 
ace of slaying Richmond with his own hand, when he was over- 
whelmed by numbers and slain. The armies which fought at 
Bosworth were very small, and very little interest seems to have 
been excited by the struggle. There was no question of principle 
between the parties, and Englishmen were as likely to get good 
government from one as from the other. 

In after-times it was the fashion to charge Richard III. with 
every species of crime. This was probably unjust. He was an 
unscrupulous man, who slew men freely if they Richard's 
stood in his way, but not a tyrant ; and when we reputation, 
think of the times in which he lived and the scenes he had witnessed, 
it could hardly be wonderful that his scruples were not so great as 
they might have been if his lot had been cast in times of greater 
quietness. 



CHIEF GENERAL EVENTS UNDER THE HOUSES OF 
YORK AND LANCASTER. 

Statute De Heretico Comburendo passed 

Glendower rebels , 

Percies' rebellion 

Scrope's rebellion... 

James of Scotland captured 

Meeting of Lollards at St. Giles's Fields 

Hundred Years' War renewed 

Earl of Cambridge's conspiracy 

Francbise in counties restricted to 40s. freeholders 
Marriage of Henry VI. and Margaret of Anjou 

Impeachment and death of Suffolk 

Cade's rebellion 

Wars of the Eoses begin 
Warwick's rebellion 
Disappearance of the priaces 
Stafford's rebellion 





.. 1402 




.. 1403 




.. 1405 




.. 1405 




.. 1414 




.. 1415 




.. 1415 




.. 1430 




.. 1445 




.. 1450 




.. 1455 




.. 1470 




.. 1483 







t68 



House of York. 



CHIEF BATTLES, SIEGES, AND TREATIES UNDER 
THE HOUSES OF YORK AND LANCASTER. 



Battles of Nesbit Moor and of Homildon Hill 


... 1402 


„ Shrewsbury 


... 1403 


„ Bramham Moor ... ... 


... 1408 


Siege of Harfleur 


... 1415 


Battle of Agincourt 




Siege of Eouen by the English 


... 1419 


Treaty of Troyes 


... 1420 


Battle of Beaugd 


... 1421 


Siege of Meaux 




Battle of Crevant 


... 1423 


„ Yerneuil 


... 1424 


Siege of Orleans 


1428-9 


Battles of the Herrings and of Patay 


... 1429 


Battle of Sevenoaks 


... 1450 


„ St. Alban's (1st) 


... 1455 


„ Bloreheath 


... 1459 


Battles of Northampton and Wakefield 


... 1460 


Battle of Mortimer's Cross 


... 1461 


„ St. Alban's (2nd) 




„ Towton 




Battles of Hedgeley Moor and Hexham 


... 1464 


Battle of Losecoat Field 


... 1469 


„ Barnet 


... 1471 


„ Tewkesbury 


... 1471 


Treaty of Pecquigny 


... 1476 


Battle of Bosworth 


... 1486 



BOOK VI 

THE SOUSE OF TUDOR 



XIV.— THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. 



Henry VII., 

1485-1509, great-great-grandson 
of John of Gaunt, by his mother, 
Margaret Beaufort. 



r= Elizabeth of York, 
daughter of 
Edward IV. 



Arthur, Henry VIII., Margaret, Mary = (1) Louis XII. of France, 



d. 1502. 



1509-1547. 



m. James IV. 
of Scotland 



Mary, Elizabeth, Edward VI., 

1553-1558. 1558-1603. 1547-1553. 



d. 1515. 
(2) Charles Brandon, 
Duke of Suffolk. 



Frances, = Henry Grey (great-grandson of Elizabeth 



d. 1559. 



Woodvilie by her first husband), 
Duke of Suffolk, executed 1554. 



Lady Jane Grey, m. Guildford Dudley (see p. 198). 
executed 1554. executed 1554. 



Katharine. 



XV.— THE KINGS OF SCOTLAND, 1460-1603. 
James III., 1460-1488. 

(1) James IV., = Margaret Tudor = Earl of Angus. 
1488-1513. I I 



James V., 
1513-1542. 



Margaret = Earl of Lenox. 



Mary, Queen of Scots = Lord Darnley, Charles, 

1542-1567. I murdered 1567. Earl of Lenox. 

I I 

James VI. of Scotland Arabella Stuart, 

and 1. of England, 1667-1625. 



XVI.— THE KINGS OF FRANCE, 1483-1603. 



Charles VIII., 

1483-1498. 



great-grandson of Charles VI. 



Succeeded by Louis XII., great-grandson of Louis, Duke of Orleans, 
1498-1515. brother of Charles VI. 

Claude = Francis I., also great-grandson of Louis, 
1515-1647. Duke of Orleans, brother of 
Charles VI. 

Henry II., 1547-1559. = Katharine de Medici. 



Francis II., Charles IX., Henry III., 

1559-1560, 1560-1574. 1574-1589, 

m . Mary, Queen suitor of 

of Scots. Queen 

Elizabeth. 



Francis, 
Duke of 
Alen^on, 
suitor of 
Queen 
Elizabeth. 
d. 1584. 



Margaret, m. 
Henry IV., 

1589-1610, 

descendant of 

Robert, the son 

of St. Louis and 

heir to French 

throne, all the 

intermediate 

branches being 

extinct. 



CHAPTER I. 

Henry VH., 1485-1509 (24 years). 
Bom 1456 ; married, 1486, Elizabeth of York 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — Archbisliop Morton ; Edward Plantagenet ; 
Lambert Simnel ; Perkin Warbeck ; Sir William Stanley ; Sir Edward 
Poynings. 

Chief Contemporary Princes. 
Scotland. France. Spain. 

James III., d. 1488. Charles VIII., d. 1498. Ferdinand and Isabella, 
James IV., d. 1513. Louis XII., d. 1515. 1479-1516, d. 1504. 

Henry VH. claimed the crown on three grounds — right of birth, 
right of conquest, and approval by Parliament; and, to give the 
Henry's claims Sanction of religion to his succession, he had it con- 
to tiie tiirone. firmed by the pope. After he had gained possession 
of the throne, he strengthened himself by marrying Elizabeth of 
York, daughter of Edward IV., but he was careful not to allow her 
claims to rival or even support his own. 

The new king was, above all things, a far-sighted statesman, and 
he set before himself three objects to which he steadily adhered : 
first, by rooting out all rivals, to secure the throne 
to himself and his family ; second, to strengthen the 
power of the crown by depressing that of the nobihty ; third, to take 
an active part in Em-opean politics. These three aims he handed 
down to his successors, and all the Tudors, as his family were called 
after Edmund Tudor, Henry's father, kept them in view. They 
regarded themselves as the champions of the orderly classes against 
the disorderly, and therefore we find that, under them, executions of 
noblemen and thieves were frequent, because one endangered the 
peace of the crown, the other the security of property. The middle 
classes, on the other hand, were contented and prosperous, secure 
from noblemen's wars and insurrections on one side, or from lawless 
depredation on the other. With the bulk of the nation, therefore, 
whose first thought is always for peace and order, all the Tudors, 
but Mary, in spite of their severity, were popular. 

Henry's first care was to secure the surviving members of the 



1492,] Henry VII, 173 

house of York. Edward Plantagenet, the son of Clarence and grand- 
son of the Earl of Warwick, was at once imprisoned secures 
in the Tower, and John de la Pole, Earl of Lincohi, ^thlSTuse"^ 
who had been acknowledged as his heir by Ki chard of York. 
III., was induced to give in his submission. Lincoln, however, soon 
changed his mind, and fled to the court of Margaret of Burgundy, 
the sister of Edward IV., who hated Henry and was always ready 
to help any Yorkist adventurers. This enmity between the king and 
the duchess was a serious matter for another reason, for it inter- 
fered with trade. The first dangerous insurrection was that carried 
on under the name of Lambert Simnel, an Oxford simnei's 
boy, who pretended to be Edward Plantagenet, whom insurrection, 
every one knew to be imprisoned in the Tower. In Ireland, how- 
ever, where the Yorkists had been very popular, the imposture was 
believed, and with a force of Irish and German mercenaries under 
the command of Lincoln and Level, an old minister of Eichard III., 
he landed near Ulverston, in Lancashire, and marched on London. 
Henry met him and beat him at Stoke, near Nottingham. Lincoln 
was killed ; Level disappeared ; Simnel was taken prisoner. Henry 
showed his contempt for Simnel by making him a scullion, and 
he also took the politic step of having his queen crowned in order 
to appeal to the Yorkists. 

The next impostor was a young man named Perkin "Warbeck, 
who, in 1492, came forward under the protection of the Duchess 
of Burgundy, and pretended to be Eichard, Duke of 
York, the younger brother of Edward V., and said /warbeck's 
to have been murdered with him in the Tower. 
Henry could not disprove the story, because he was unable to prove 
the murder. Only one of the persons who was said to have had a 
hand in it was alive, and his evidence went for very little, because 
no bodies could be found; indeed, it was not till the time of 
Charles II. that two skeletons answering to the size of the princes 
were discovered. The consequence was that Warbeck received 
much support. He was well received in Ireland, where the Yorkists 
were popular, and then went to France, where he was received by 
the king, because Henry had sent troops to help the Duchess of 
Brittany against the French. Henry on this made peace with 
France for a large sum of money, and Warbeck was obliged to take 



174 The Tudor s. [1492- 

refage in Flanders. For three years he stayed there, and then 
Philip, Duke of Burgundy, fearful of losing the wool trade, made 
a commercial treaty, called the " Great Intercourse," with Henry, 
by which it was agreed that the trade should be renewed and that 
no more help should be given to Warbeck. From Flanders 
Warbeck moved to Ireland, and thence to Scotland, where he 
was helped by James IV. to ravage the northern counties of 
England. Nothing came of this, so he went to Ireland. There he 
learnt that there had been a rebellion in Cornwall. 

This happened in 1497, and was caused by an attempt to levy 

taxes on the ground of the Scottish raid. The Cornishmen marched 

comisii to Blackheath, but were there beaten by Henry, who 

rebeUion. ^i^^ provided himself with a train of artillery. After 
all was over Warbeck landed in Cornwall, and tried to renew the 
insurrection. He liad some success, but fled when the royal troops 
came near, and was soon captured and imprisoned in the Tower. 
There he made friends with Edward Plantagenet, and they agreed 
to escape together ; and this gave Henry the opportunity of getting 
rid of them both, which was accomplished in 1499. Seven years 
later, Henry contrived to get into his hands the Earl of Suffolk, a 
younger brother of John, Earl of Lincoln, on condition that he spared 
his life. He kept his promise, but advised his son Henry VIII. to 
have Suffolk put to death, which was done in 1513. 

The weakness of the royal authority in Ireland, and the strength 
of the Yorkist feeling there, caused Henr}^, in 1494, to send over as 
deputy Sir Edward Poynings, who induced the Irish Parliament to 
pass an act forbidding any bill to be brought into the Irish Parlia- 
ment unless it had received the consent of the king's Enghsh 
council. This is called Poynings' Law, and it remained in force 
for nearly three hundred years. 

All this time Henry had not lost sight of his second object, the 
depression of the nobility. Parliament readily renewed Eichard 

III.'s law against keeping retainers. But the real 
Court of star ,.^ , '^ i , , 

Chamber dimculty was not to pass the law, but to enforce 

up. .^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^.^ purpose Henry set up a new court. 

This court was intended for the trial of offenders whose crimes 

were too subtle, or who were themselves too powerful, to be tried 

at the regular assizes. In theory it was a revival of the judicial 



1600.] Henry VI L 175 

power of the king's privy council. The court was composed of the 
chief officers of state, with several judges, and any others whom the 
king chose to appoint. It summoned offenders before it, and tried 
them without a jury. It was said to be aimed particularly at " stout 
gentlemen of the north of England," then the most unruly part of the 
kingdom, at sheriffs who impanelled juries unfairly, at inciters of 
riots, keepers of retainers, and similar offenders. This court, which 
was afterwards known as the hated Star Chamber, was at first very 
useful, so long as it was used in the interests of the orderly against 
the disorderly, and it is said that much of the quiet which was 
maintained during the difficult times of the Reformation was due 
to its effects. 

Two instances may be noted as specimens of Henry's dealing with 
his nobles. On the occasion of a visit to the Earl of Oxford, one of 
the most noted warriors on the Lancastrian side, he Treatment of 
passed through lines of men in livery. " These are nobles, 
your servants ? " said the king. " Sir, they are my retainers," replied 
the earl. " Thank you for your hospitality, my lord," said the king ; 
" but I cannot have my laws broken in my sight." For keeping 
retainers Oxford was fined £10,000. On another occasion Henry 
learnt from his spies that Sir William Stanley, brother of the Earl 
of Derby, one of the richest and therefore one of the most dangerous 
men in England, was corresponding with Warbeck. He was 
instantly tried and executed, and his wealth was added to the royal 
treasures. In this way Henry steadily enriched himself at the 
expense of his turbulent nobles. 

Like Edward IV., Henry made the merchants pay well for the 
security they enjoyed, by giving him benevolences. Morton, now 
Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Chancellor, "Morton's ' 
invented a most ingenious plan of suiting his method Fork." 
of asking to the habits of each. If a man spent much, he was told 
he could well afford more for the king and less for himself; if he 
spent little, that he could give out of his savings. This dilemma 
was called "Morton's Fork." Henry also added to his „ „ 

•^ Ho-w Henry 

wealth by enforcing to the utmost the strict letter of fiued Ma 
the feudal law, and in this his chief agents were 
Empson and Dudley, two lawyers who were bitterly hated for 
their extortion. The Parliament were stiU ready to vote money 



176 The Tudor s, [isoo- 

for war with France, and on several occasions Henry obtained 
grants for that purpose, and then, making peace for the sake of a 
gift from the French king, he put both the grant and the gift into 
his exchequer. Thus Henry provided himself with a well-fiUed 
treasury, by which his position was much secured. By estabhshing 
the Star Chamber, he secured a law court independent of popular 
feeling, and by filling his coffers he freed himself from the control of 
Parliament, so that he took two long strides towards making himself 
absolute. 

The great power which Henry had thus gained in England 
enabled him to interfere with effect in the affairs of the Continent. 
At this time France and Spain had become much 
more powerful than they had been formerly, and 
were ambitious of seizing territories in Italy. The result was that, 
for the first time in European history, great alliances were formed 
to eflect objects in which all Europe was interested. 

The great question of the day was whether the French should be 

allowed to annex some of the Itahan states, especially Milan ; and 

„. Ferdinand of Aragon, who claimed Naples and Sicily, 

European aUx- ... . . 

ance against and the Emperor Maximilian, who claimed authority 
over Northern Italy, were wishful to prevent this. 
Maximilian had married Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, Duke of 
Burgundy. The child of Maximilian and Mary was Philip, Duke 
of Burgundy, who, by right of his mother, owned the Netherlands, 
and hoped some day to be head of the house of Austria, and perhaps 
emperor. On the other hand, Ferdinand of Aragon and his wife, 
Isabella of Castile, had a numerous family, and they arranged a 
marriage between Philip and their eldest daughter Joanna. Presently 
their only son John died, so Joanna became their heiress. The son of 
Philip and Joanna was Charles V.,^ who was thus heir to Burgundy, 

1 GENEALOGY OF CHARLES V. 

MaximiliaB (Emperor), = Marv of Ferdinand of Aragon, = Isabella 
d. 1519. Burgundy. d. 1516. I of Castile. 



Archdxike Philip, = Joanna. Katharine, m. (1) Arthur. Others. 
of Austria. | d. 1536. (2) Henry VIII. 

Charles V., Emperor, d. 1558. 



1509.] Henry VII. 177 

Austria, the Netherlands, and Spain. Ferdinand married another 
daughter to the King of Portugal, and on her death the pope 
allowed a younger sister to take her place. Ferdinand had only- 
one more daughter, Katharine. 

Ferdinand and Philip both wished that Henry VII. would ally 
with them against France, and for that end a marriage was 
arranged in 1501 between Arthur, Prince of Wales, Marriage of 
and Katharine of Aragon. Soon after his marriage ^^I'^ce Arthur. 
Arthur died, and as Ferdinand had no more daughters, it was 
arranged that, by a dispensation from the pope, Katharine should 
be married to Henry, the only other son of Henry VII., so that 
the alliance might remain as it was. In 1502 Henry VII., to 
bring Scotland into the league, married his daughter Margaret 
to James IV., King of Scotland, hoping that this would detach 
the Scots from their old friendship with the French. In this 
way almost the whole of Europe was leagued together against 
France, and shortly after this had been accomplished Deatii of 
Henry died in 1509. Henry. 

The reign of Henry VII. is remarkable for having witnessed some 
of the greatest events in modern history. In 1492 Columbus 
discovered the West Indian Islands ; in 1497 John Cabot, an Italian, 
with a Bristol ship and Bristol sailors, reached the mainland of 
America; and before Henry died the greater part of the eastern 
coast of North and South America had been examined by Enghsh- 
men, Portuguese, or Spaniards. In 1497 Vasco de Gama, sailing 
from Lisbon, had doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and made his 
way to India by sea. These discoveries were due indirectly to the 
conquest of the eastern shores of the Mediterranean by the Turks, 
who took Constantinople in 1453. Their cruelty and extortion 
prevented merchants from following the overland route to India. 
This forced traders to seek for a road to India by sea, and it was 
in pursuit of this that the voyages of Columbus and Vasco de 
Gama were made. These discoveries had the greatest effect upon 
the history of Europe. Hitherto the countries which lay round the 
Mediterranean Sea had been most important ; they now began to be 
outstripped by those which lay on or near the Atlantic and Spain, 
Portugal, England, and Holland became the chief trading nations of 
the world. 

N 



178 The Tudor s. [1509. 

During the same reign a great revival of learning occurred in 
England. This spread from Italy, which was then the most learned 
and civilized nation in Europe, and a great stimulus had been 
given to it by the study of Greek and Eoman writers, while the 
invention by Gutenberg of Mainz in 1442, of the art of printing by 
movable types, had made it cheaper to copy books. The invention 
of gunpowder, which had been coming into use since the middle of 
the fourteenth century, gradually changed the art of war, and 
destroyed the power of the old armoured knights, and of the 
archers with their bows and arrows. The discovery of America 
and the new route to India, the conquest of Constantinople by the 
Turks, the revival of learning, and the inventions of printing and 
gunpowder, are the great events which mark the change from 
mediaeval to modern Europe, and their influence began to make 
Itself felt in England in the reign of Henry VII. 



Born 1491 ; married, -< 



CHAPTER II. 

Henry VIII., 1509-1547 (38 years). 

( 1509, Katharine of Aragon, d. 1536. 

1532, Anne Boleyn, executed 1536. 

1536, Jane Seymour, d. 1537. 

1540, Anne of Cleves, divorced 1540. 

1540, Katharine Howard, executed 1542. 
V 1543, Katharine Parr, survived her husband. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — Cardinal Wolsey ; Charles Brandon, Duke 
of Suffolk ; Sir Thomas More ; Fisher, Bishop of Rochester ; Thomas 
Cromwell ; Robert Aske ; Edward Seymour, Lord Hertford ; Henry 
Howard, Lord Surrey ; Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury. 

Chief Contemporary Princes. 

Scotland. France. Spain. Pope. 

James IV., d. 1513. Louis XII., d. 1515. Charles V., Clement VII., 

James V., d. 1542. Francis I., d. 1547. 1516-1556. 1523-1534. 
Mary, deposed 1567. 

Henky VIII. was only eighteen when he came to the throne, 
and his accession made little difference in the general course of 
events. He followed his father's foreign policy by -^^^ foUows 
completing his marriage with Katharine, and his his father's 
domestic pohcy by executing the Earl of Suffolk, 
nephew of Edward IV., who had been surrendered by Philip of 
Burgundy ; while he tried to win popularity by having Empson and 
Dudley executed on an absurd charge of high treason, and by 
making a lavish display of his father's treasure. In accordance 
with the views of the league, Henry in 1513 invaded Battle of Guine- 
France, besieged Therouenne, and won the battle of easte, I5is. 
Guinegaste, which the French laughingly called the "Battle of the 
Spurs," because they used their spurs more than their swords. 
The same year, in spite of the marriage between James IV. and 
Margaret of England, the Scots invaded England after their usual 
manner, as allies of France. 

The Scots posted themselves on Flodden Edge, a strong position 
overlooking the deep river Till, which flows almost due north from 
the Cheviot Hills to fall into the Tweed. The Enghsh general, 
Lord Surrey, finding the Scots too securely posted to be attacked 



i8o 



The Tudors. 



[1513- 



with success, marched past them, and crossing the Till at Twizell 

Mill near its junction with the Tweed, placed himself between the 

Battle of Scots and Scotland. The Scots were thus forced to 

Fiodden, fight at great disadvantage, and, in spite of all their 

bravery, they were surrounded by the English host, 

and few survivors made their way to Scotland. Among those who 




Englisli Mfles 



MAP 03? THE FLODDEN DISTKICT. 



Peace -with. 

France 
concluded. 



perished were James IV. himself, and the flower of the Scottish 
nobility. James was succeeded by his infant son, under the care 
of Margaret of England, and for many years Scotland was too 
weak to be a danger to England. 

Neither Henry VIII. nor his subjects were prepared to under- 
take the conquest of France. Maximilian and Ferdinand did 
httle to help, and so, in 1514, Henry made peace, 
and married his youngest sister Mary to the French 
king, Louis XII. Unfortunately, Louis died three 
months after his marriage, and Mary then married Charles Brandon, 
created Duke of Suffolk, by whom she became the ancestress of 
Lady Jane Grey. Louis was succeeded in 1515 by his young 
cousin Francis L, who inherited all his ambitious schemes. 

During the first twenty years of this reign, the most striking 

Thomas figure in England was Thomas Wolsey. This states- 

"Woisey. _ j^g^j^ ^g^g \,oxxi at Ipswich, in 1471. His father, 

though not a man of rank, gave him the best education in his 



1519.] Henry VIII. i8i 

power, and sent him to Magdalen College, Oxford. He arrived 
there at the moment when the English miiversities were begin- 
ning to catch some of the enthusiasm for learning for which Italy 
was then famous. He became a Bachelor of Arts at fourteen, and 
was afterwards made fellow and tutor of Magdalen College. It 
was in his time that the beautiful tower of that college was 
built. His post of tutor gained him the friendship of the Marquess 
of Dorset, whose sons were at the college. By him Wolsey 
was presented to a living, and was brought to the notice of 
Henry VII., under whom his rise was rapid. His ability for busi- 
ness was very great ; he was hard working, and he knew no 
scruple in forwarding the views of the king. Under Henry VIII 
he advanced to greater favour, and in 1515 he was made Chan- 
cellor. The next year the pope made him cardinal, and in 1517, 
by the special request of Henry, papal legate. It ought to be 
noticed that the chief power, both in ecclesiastical and civil matters, 
was thus united in the hands of the first minister of the crown, and as 
this went on for fourteen years, people became accustomed to look 
to the king's leading minister as chief man both in Church and State. 

Wolsey had in view three objects : (1) to increase the power of 
the crown, as Henry VII. had done ; (2) to improve the state 
of the Church of England, by abolishing some of the -woisey's 
smaller monasteries, and applying their revenues to Bchemes. 
the foundation of colleges and schools, where the new learning 
could be taught ; (3) to become, if possible, pope, and so to gain 
control over the general reformation of the Church which he saw 
was impending, and which began under Luther in Germany in 
1517. We may call these plans ambitious if we hke; but they 
were certainly the views of a great man, and had they been 
carried into effect, both England and Europe might have had a 
very different history. 

Wolsey saw that he might make his third scheme fit in with 
Henry's desire to play an active part on the Continent, and so 
he furthered the king's wishes in this respect. In 

^ Woisey's 

1519 the Emperor Maximilian died, and a new foreig'n 
election followed. The emperor was elected by schemes, 
seven persons— the Archbishops of Mainz, Koln, and Trier,i and 
'^ The French spelling of these towns is Mayence, Cologne, and Treves. 



1 82 The Tudor s, [1519- 

by the Electors of Bohemia, Saxony, Brandenburg, and the Palati- 
nate. These chose a king of Germany, who had a right to demand 
coronation at the hands of the pope ; and when he had received 
this he was looked on as the successor of the Roman emperors 
of the West. Charles of Spain, Francis of France, and Henry 
of England all came forward as candidates; the electors chose 
Charles of Spain. This had the result of uniting together Spain, 
Holland, the Netherlands, Germany, Austria, and Naples in one 
vast dominion. Now, the Italian question was certain to bring 
about war between Francis and Charles, and it was uncertain which 
Henry would join. Both made him offers. Francis entertained 
him at the " Field of the Cloth of Gold " ; Charles came over to 
England to visit the husband of his aunt Katharine. But Charles' 
offer to use his influence to get the cardinals to elect Wolsey pope 
won England for the Spanish alliance. For some time Henry held 
AUiance with ^0 this, and even sent in 1522 and 1523 small expe- 
spain. ditions to France. But two events changed England's 
policy. Charles failed to secure the Papacy for Wolsey; and, 

Battle of secondly, Charles beat Francis so completely at the 
Pavia, 1535. battle of Pavia, that there seemed to be danger lest 
all Europe should fall under his complete control. In the time of 
Henry V. the weakness of France would have seemed a good 
reason for prosecuting the claim of the English kings to the crown ; 
but Wolsey did not think so. He was the first English statesman 
who grasped the idea of the balance of power, by which is meant, 
that if one European state shows symptoms of reaching such a 
Alliance with power as to threaten the liberties of the others, they 
France. should all Combine to balance her strength by their 
union. According to this policy Henry and Wolsey joined France, 
and Charles was soon obliged to release Francis. 

While engaged in his Continental schemes, Wolsey had not lost 
sight of his plans for reform at home. He had gained from the 

Reformat pope authority to suppress some of the smaller 

home. monasteries, and had begun to use the money he thus 

gained to found a new school at Ipswich, and a college in Oxford, 

on the model of Winchester College and New College, which had 

been founded by William of Wykeham. 

Meanwhile a very serious question was coming to the front in 



15S9.] Henry VIII. 183 

England. Henry and Katharine had been married a long time, and 
though they had had many children, all had died, 

. "^ ' ' Difficulty 

except one delicate girl, the Lady Mary. If Henry about the 
died without children, there would probably be a 
dispute about the succession ; and even if he left a daughter, no 
one doubted that very difficult times would follow. 

The danger was so serious that Henry, in 1521, took an oppor- 
tunity, on a charge of high treason, to get rid of Edward, third Duke 
of Buckingham, who, as a descendant of Edward HI., Execution of 
would have been very likely to put forward his "i^j^e^,^* 
claims, especially as, by one act or another, all the Bucking-iiam. 
members of the royal family who stood between him and the 
throne had been either declared illegitimate or attainted. If we 
remember that the legality of Henry's marriage with Katharine, 
though sanctioned by the pope, might still be disputed, it is plain 
that the situation was very serious. These were considerations of 
state ; but when Henry himself grew tired of Katharine, and wanted 
to marry some one else, it became of the utmost importance that 
the question whether his present marriage was legal should be 
expeditiously settled one way or another. Wolsey was in favour 
of the divorce, as he wished the king to marry a French princess, 
and he is said to have exclaimed, " If I could see the king well 
married and the Church reformed, I could die happy." 

The natural course, under the circumstances, was to appeal to 
the pope; and this Henry did. Under ordinary circumstances, 
the pope would probably have made no difficulty; 
but the circumstances were not ordinary, for Pope to about the 
Clement VII. was imprisoned by Charles' troops <^vorce. 
in the castle of St. Angelo, at Eome, and the emperor was all 
powerful in Italy. Hence Clement was afraid to offend Charles 
by divorcing his aunt Katharine. At the same time, he did not 
wish to offend Henry and Francis, who might help him against 
the emperor, and consequently he tried to please both and to 
gain time by doing nothing. Accordingly, he sent PopecaUstue 
Cardinal Campeggio as his legate to try the case case to Rome, 
in England with Wolsey; and when Queen Katharine appealed 
to have the case tried in Kome, the pope called the case thither 
in 1529. 



184 The Tudors. [1529- 

This course was fatal both to Wolsey and to the Papal power; 

for the king determined to put in force the Act of Praemunire, which 

The king- puts allowed Mm to forbid either appeals to Rome or the 

Pr^^munire receiving of letters from Rome. In spite of the fact 

in force. that Wolscy had been made cardinal and legate by 

his special request, Henry accused Wolsey of violating this act. 

In a contest with the pope, Henry felt the need of having 
England at his back; and though, like Edward IV. and Henry 
VII., he had hitherto summoned few Parliaments, he now called 
Parliament One together in 1529. This sat, not as previous 
called. Parliaments had done, for a month or two, but 
for seven years, and carried out one of the greatest revolutions 
in English history. No doubt Henry took good care to get 
members elected whom he could trust; but he need have had 
no fear of trusting his subjects to help him in attacking the pope 
or reforming Church abuses. The Church had been unpopular for 
years, and, as we saw in the time of Henry IV., Parliament had 
only been held back by the authority of the king himself from con- 
fiscating its property. 

Of course Henry's wrath fell on Wolsey, who had, he thought, 
played him false. He was dismissed from his office and from court, 
and his place was taken by Sir Thomas More, a 
lawyer who had written "Utopia," a book which, 
under the form of a description of an ideal commonwealth, was 
a satire on the abuses of the time. Within a year Wolsey was 
sent for to London to answer a charge of high treason. How- 
ever, he was fortunate enough to die on the road, at Leicester 
Abbey. 

The Church of England was connected with the Papacy by the 
following ties. In the first place, the pope was theoretically head 
Connection of of the Catholic Church, to which England had be- 
En^ia^with lo^^g^d since the days of St. Augustine. Secondly, 
Rome. though by the Act of Praemunire the king might 

prohibit it, appeals had constantly gone from the English eccle- 
siastical courts to Rome. Thirdly, large taxes, called tenths and 
firstffuits, had been paid by the clergy, and Peter's pence by the 
laity. Fourthly, the pope had practically appointed the English 
bishops and a good many of the English clergy, though forbidden 



1534.] Henry VIII, 185 

to do so by the Act of Provisors. All these links were swept away 
by the Parliament of 1529. 

We saw that Wolsey had incurred the penalties of Praemunire 
by accepting from the pope the office of papal legate. By the strict 
letter of the law, the clergy who had acknowledged „ 

' °'' ^ Henry becomes 

him in this capacity had made themselves liable to "Headoftiie 
the same penalties. By these their goods were to be ^'^ 

forfeited to the king, and themselves to be imprisoned at the king's 
pleasure. Henry had no scruple in using this weapon, and forced 
the representatives of the clergy assembled in convocation to address 
him as " Supreme Head of the Church and clergy; " Acts to 
but they bravely added the words, "so far as the separate the 

Clmrcli of 

law of Christ will allow." The Parliament then set England from 
itself to sever the other Imks. In 1532 an act for ti^^pope. 
restraining all appeals to Kome was passed. In 1534 another act 
forbade the payments of tenths to Eome, and at the same time 
the pope's power of influencing the election of bishops was done 
away with. It must not, however, be supposed that the clergy were 
allowed either to keep the tenths or to elect whom they pleased. 
On the contrary, they had to pay the tenths to Henry's exchequer, 
and the king from this time forward managed the Election of 
election of the bishops thus. When a see became bishops, 
vacant, the king sent to the dean and chapter a letter, called a 
conge cfelire^ authorizing them to elect a new bishop. At the same 
time, he sent another letter, called a letter missive, suggesting whom 
they should elect. If the man named were not chosen, the whole 
chapter would incur the penalties of Praemunire. There has never 
yet been an instance of refusal. To complete the separation, in 
1534 an act was passed abolishing the authority of the pope in 
England; and the next year, by the Act of Supremacy, Henry 
took the title of " Supreme Head on earth of the Church of 
England." 

While these acts were being passed to separate the Church of 
England from the pope, another series of acts had reformed the 
abuses in the discipline of the clergy. We saw that church 
in the time of Wycliffe there had been good ground discipline, 
for complaint, and there is nothing to show that things were any 
better since his time. The first of these acts regulated the fees 



1 86 The Tudor s. [1534 

whicli the clergy had been in the habit of exacting from the people 
for performing religious services. A second forbade clergymen to 
hold several livings at once, v^hich had been a cause of great 
scandal. A third reformed the spiritual courts and strengthened the 
old mortmain statutes, which forbade lands being given to the clergy. 
A fourth did away with the abuses of benefit of clergy, by which, 
since the murder of Becket, the clerical offenders had been tried and 
punished by the bishops, and not by the ordinary law of the land. 
These reforms seem to have been very much needed, and to have 
been all steps in the right direction. 

Meanwhile Henry had not been fortunate about his divorce. 

At the suggestion of a Cambridge scholar named Cranmer, 

Henry's ^® ^^^ appealed to the universities of Europe to 

marriages, gay whether the pope could allow a man to marry 
his deceased brother's wife. Their answers were not conclusive, 
but as soon as the act forbidding appeals to Eome was passed, 
Henry had the case tried before Cranmer, whom he had made 
Archbishop of Canterbury, in the ordinary archbishop's court. 
Of course the decision was in his favour, and Henry acknow- 
ledged his marriage with Anne Boleyn, a lady of the family 
of Howard,^ to whom he had been long attached. Anne soon 
became the mother of a daughter, afterwards Queen Elizabeth. 

1 THE HOWAEDS. 

John Howard, 
created Duke of Norfolk, killed at Bosworth 1485. 

Thomas, Earl of Surrey, 
won battle of Flodden 1513, restored to the dukedom 1514, d. 1514. 



Thomas, Edmund Howard. William Howard, Elizabeth — Thomas 
Duke of 1 created Lord Howard Howard. I Boleyn. 

Norfolk, Katharine Howard, of Effingham. | 

d. 1554. m. Henry VIII., | Anne Boleyn 

j executed 1542. Charles, m. Henry VIII., 

j second son of Lord Howard executed 1536. 

I of Effingham, defeated the | 

Henry, Earl of Surrey, Armada 1588, created Earl Queen Elizabeth, 
beheaded 1547. " of Nottingham 1590, d. 1624. 1558-1603. 

Thomas, Duke of Norfolk, 
beheaded 1572 (great-grandfather 
of Lord Stafford, executed in 1680). 



1536. J Henry VIII, 187 

Parliament then passed an act settling the succession on the 
children of Henry and Anne. Sir Thomas More, the Chan- 
cellor, and Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, refused to accept this 
act, and were sent to the Tower. A year later they were 
both executed, nominally for high treason, in reality because 
they disapproved of what Henry was doing. Unfortunately, 
before a prince was born to inherit the throne, Henry became 
jealous of Anne. Probably she had only been fooHshly indiscreet ; 
but the matter was serious, and she was executed. Execution of 
Two days afterwards Henry married another lady, AnneBoieyn. 
Jane Seymour. By her he had a son, born in 1537 ; and as 
Katharine had died before Anne Boleyn's fall, there could be no 
doubt that this prince was heir to the throne, so that the succession 
difficulty was over for the present. Unfortunately, the queen died 
soon after the birth of her son, and Henry did not marry again for 
some time. 

After the fall of Sir Thomas More, the chief adviser of the kmg 
was Thomas Cromwell. He had been a dependent Thomas 
of Wolsey's, and, like More, he was a layman. He cromweu. 
was an able man, devoted to the king's interests. With his aid 
the king proceeded to attack the monasteries. 

At this time there were in England more than six hundred monastic 
houses, where dwelt men and women who had taken the three vows 
of chastity, poverty, and obedience. The oldest of the Religious 
orders was the Benedictine, founded ui the sixth orders, 
century by St. Benedict, the patriarch of Western Monasticism. 
Its houses were usually in populous towns, which had often grown 
up around them. Of their abbeys, Westminster is an example. 
Branches of this order were the Clugniac, founded during the 
eleventh century, which took its name from the French abbey of 
Clugny, and the Cistercian, called from the abbey of Citeaux, 
founded at the close of the eleventh century by Stephen Harding, 
an Englishman. The Cistercian monasteries were built in out-of- 
the-way places, which were reclaimed by the monks, and of these 
Fountains, Tintern, and Furness are examples. Next to these 
orders stood the Augustinian and Premonstratensian canons, of 
which the houses at Bristol and Chichester are specimens. During 
the crusades were founded the mihtary orders, of which the chief 



1 88 The Tudor s. [isse 

were the Templars, wliose principal house was the Temple in 

London, and the knights of St. John, or Hospitallers, one of whose 

houses was at Clerkenwell. The Templars, however, had been 

dissolved in the time of Edward II. Next came the mendicant 

friars, who had houses in every important town. Their chief 

orders were the Grey Friars, or Franciscans, founded by an 

Italian, St. Francis, at the beginning of the thirteenth century, and 

the Dominicans, or Black Friars, founded about the same time 

by St. Dominic, a Spaniard. The monks and nuns lived by 

themselves within the walls of their monasteries, but the friars 

travelled from place to place, living upon alms, and only used 

their houses as headquarters. 

There was much to be said for and against the monasteries. 

In a rude age they had done good service as retreats for men of 

peace and learning; but their place had now been 
f Henry 

attacks tiie taken by the universities, and Wolsey, as we have 
monasteries. ^^^^^ ^^^ recognized that some of their wealth, at 
any rate, might be better employed in supporting colleges and 
schools. Thus from the point of view of the men of the new 
learning, they were behind the age. Others, no doubt, looked at 
them as valuable institutions, which diffused some culture in country 
places, educated the children of their neighbours, sent poor lads 
to the university and maintained them there, relieved the distressed, 
succoured the wayfarer, and performed a number of kindly ofiSces 
which could ill be spared. Neither of these views was, we fear, 
taken by the majority. The needy king saw in the wealth of the 
monasteries a good reason for their fall ; members of Parliament 
thought that, if this wealth were given to the king, there would be 
no more need for taxes ; while, doubtless, many coveted the lands 
of the monks and hoped to profit by their misfortunes. 

Actuated by these diverse feelings, the government sent a com- 
mission to inquire into the state of the monasteries. Their condition 

Commission was probably no better and no worse than it had long 
senttoinauire ^ ^^^ rp|^Q larger wcrc for the most part in good 

into state oi ° x ^^ 

f monasteries, order, the Smaller were frequently full of abuses ; but 
sufficient evidence was got to afford a pretext for what was wanted, 
and by Act of Parliament in 1536, the smaller monasteries were 
dissolved. Their fate frightened many of the greater ones into 



1636. J Henry VII I. 1S9 

voluntary submission ; some were cajoled into making what they 
believed was a formal surrender ; the abbots of Glastonbury, 
Colchester, and Eeading, were indicted for treason _. , ^. 

' ®' Dissolution 

and executed; and in 1539 another act was passed, of the 

authorizing the surrender to the king of all the 
property of the remaining monastic institutions. Doubtless the 
more honourable statesmen hoped that the money thus obtained 
would be used for the good of the nation as a whole. Plans 
were brought forward to increase the number of bishoprics, and 
to found colleges and schools. Unfortunately, very little was 
done in this way: only six new bishoprics were „ 
created; and the money did not even go to form money was 
a permanent fund for the reduction of taxation. ^^^ ^® 
Some was spent on the fortification of the coast, but most of 
it found its way into the pockets of the king's courtiers, and 
helped to make the fortunes of a new nobility devoted to the 
interests of the reformation ; and such families as the Cavendishes, 
the Russells, the Seymours, the Dudleys, and the Cecils, whose 
wealth was gained from this source, began to take the place 
of the old nobility of England, of whom the family of Howard, 
though their title only dated from the reign of Edward IV., were 
the chief representatives. 

The proceedings of Henry and the Parliament in the matter of 
the divorce, the separation from Rome, and the abolition of the 
monasteries, did not pass without disturbance. So Disturbances 
early as 1534 a half-witted girl, commonly called caused by 
the Nun of Kent, who in her fits had spoken Henry and 
strongly against the divorce, and had been made Parliament, 
the tool of the disaffected priests, was executed. In 1535, the" 
execution of Sir Thomas More and Bishop Fisher showed that the 
most accomplished layman of his day, and one of the most learned 
of ecclesiastics, were not prepared to join a movement which they 
thought schismatic. In 1536 the northern counties, where the 
monks were more popular than in the south, rose in rebellion, 
under a lawyer, Robert Aske, against the sup- 
pression of the lesser monasteries. This move- "Piig-rimage" 
ment was called the "Pilgrimage of Grace." The 
leaders, Aske, Darcy, and Constable, with four abbots, were 



iQo The Tudors. [isse- 

executed, but the common people were treated with leniency. 
Council of 0^^^ result of this rebellion was the institution of 
the North, q^q Council of the North, a committee of the Privy 

Council, which henceforth sat for four months of the year, at 

York, Hull, Newcastle, and Durham. 
The severance of the connection between England and Kome, 

and the attacks which had been made on the clergy, naturally 

encouraged the party which took their ideas partly 
Movement °^ r J r j 

towards from the German reformation, partly from the Imger- 
ro es an ism. .^^ traditions of LoUardism ; and an impetus had been 
given to these ideas by an English translation of the Bible being 
allowed to be set up ia the churches in 1536. Such a movement 
towards Protestantism formed no part of Henry's plan. To the end 
of his life he was a Catholic, and in 1539 an act was passed to put a 
stop to the movement. This law passed Parhament by acclamation, 
and imposed on the nation Six Articles of doctrine and observance, 
of which the most important were — the belief in transubstantia- 
tion, the celibacy of the clergy, and auricular confession. Henry 
was determined that these should be believed in and practised ; and 
when he sent to execution at the same time one man for denying 
the royal supremacy, and another for denying the truth of tran- 
substantiation, he exactly showed what his own attitude was. 

For some time after the death of Jane, Henry remained un- 
married, but in 1539 he was persuaded to accept in marriage Anne, 
^ sister of the Duke of Cleves — a small territory on the 

Marriage of _ '' 

Henry with Rhine. CromwcU devised this match, because he 

nneo eves, ^g^j^^g^j Henry to make common cause with the 

German Protestant princes who had formed a league against 

Charles V. Unluckily for Cromwell, his scheme of an alliance 

against Charles failed; and when Anne arrived, her person was 

distasteful to the king. The matter was easily arranged. Anne 

was divorced and provided for by a pension; but 

Thomas Cromwcll lost his head. His enemies were only too 

glad to attack him, and when the king's favour was 

withdrawn, an act of attainder brought his career to a close, in 

Marriage with ^^^^' "^^^^ ^™° *^^^ pleased the old nobility by 

Katharine marrying Katharine Howard. Unfortunately, after 

two years the king found that she had behaved badly 



1542.] Henry VIII. 191 

before her marriage, and she was put to death ; the Marriage with 
king then married Katharine Parr, who survived him. Parr.^^^ 

Possibly the difficulties in which Henry had been involved 
revived the hopes of the Yorkists, and encouraged them to plot 
against him ; perhaps Henry was angry because Keginald Pole, who 
had written against the divorce, had been made a 
Cardinal; at any rate in 1638 Henry arrested Pole's countess of 
mother, the Countess of Salisbury,i daughter of the ^^^i^bury. 
Duke of Clarence, the brother of Edward IV. ; her eldest son, Henry- 
Pole, Lord Montacute, and Edward Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter, 
grandson of Edward IV. AU three were executed — the lords in 
1539, the Countess in 1541 — and after this the rivalry between the 
two houses of York and Lancaster may be said to disappear. 

The confiscation of the property of the monasteries had a 
bad effect upon Henry and his court. When the money was 
gone, he looked about for more, and he hit upon Debasement of 
the expedient of debasing the coinage. Since the *^® coinage, 
days of Edward III. England had always been very careful to keep 
up a high standard. On this the credit of a nation depends ; for if 
there is any uncertainty as to the value of money, foreign trade 
becomes impossible. The old rule was that in every twelve ounces 
of silver there should be three quarters of an ounce of alloy, in 
order to make it hard enough to stand wear and tear ; but m 1543 
Henry paid his creditors with shillings in which the proportion was 
two ounces of alloy to twelve ounces of silver. From bad he went 
to worse, and in 1546 he actually issued money in which there were 
eight ounces of alloy to twelve ounces of silver. Naturally Henry 

»THE POLES. 
George, Duke of Clarence, = Isabel Neville, daughter of the 



brother of Edward IV, 
d. 1478 



Earl of Warwick, 
d. 1477. 



Margaret, = Sir Richard Pole. Edward Plantagenet, 



Countess of Salisbury, 
executed 1541. 



Earl of Warwick, 
executed 1499. 



Henry Pole, Lord Montacute, Reginald, 

executed 1539. Archbishop of Canterbury, 

and Cardinal, d. 1558.' 



192 T/ie Tudor s, iie^a- 

Havod by iliin, bnl, il, whh killiiip^ tho pooHO that laid the f^oldoii oggH. 
Ti'iulo WHH I'liiiicd ; no olio would buy who (M)til(l hcilp il,, Ibr no ono 
know tho viiJiio of nionoy. 'J'ho (lont of pioviHioni-i roHo jniuiilbld, 
iind tho dinlroHH ol" tho ])0()r wiiH bu'ribhi, Ibr wiij^dH iiov(!r riwo so 
IiihI. an \\w oont of proviBions. Naturally beggary and robbery 
iii(!r<Mi.H(s(l apace. 

Tho hiHt low yoarw of ITonry'H roign woro Tornarkid»lo for H(Woral 

Hto|)H in the dirc^otion of tho union of tho British IhIoh. In 15.'{G 

Wales WaloH waH ooin|tloU'ly nniliMl to I'jiigland in ninltcn'S 

and iroiand. ,)(• 1,,^^^ „,,,| ^,,,,(, l,|iir|,y-Hovon mond)orH to tho 

llnit(^d I'lirliaincnt. A ooiiunittoo of tho Vrivy Clouncil for 

Wah^H bdgan to Hit a.t Ludlow, an the Council of tiu^ Noith did for 

tlio northoin countiofl. In 1542 ITonry took tho title of "King of 

Indiind;" hin prodocoHHOi'H had morcly Btylod thoiUHolvoH " Lord." 

Siiu'.o IModdon Ihon^ iiiul botui no rogular war hotwoon liUglund 

iind SoolJand, thonj'h Iho hordtu" lords hiid \w(\\\ (;on- 

Htantly at ntrilb, but in IHI'J thoir quarroln roHultod in 

regular war. Ja,uioH V., lloiu'y'H nophow, wan not popular with his 

Bauioof HubJoctH, and IiIh troo])H flod diHgraco fully at R(dway 

BoiwayMoai. Mo^h. This broke James's heart, and ho died in 

a f(nv days, heaving his crown to bin daughter Mary, an infant of a 

week old. lloiu-y''H groat aim now wan to marry IliiH child to 

bis Bon l^'dward. In If* I.") this arrang(uiH>nt was concluded with 

tho chiolH of the ICnglish l>a,rty in Si'otland. Tho l>onch, and 

the Froiioh ])aTty in Scotland, beaded by Cardinal Hoalon, disliked 

the plan; 80 in 1544 TTonry found biniHolf at war 

Ii'i'nTX'fi (1,11(1 * 

HiM)t.iaiui with both [''rancid and S(^olIa,nd. The English in- 
inviuiod. ^,^^^,^^^j ^,.„,i,„„j „„,i,.,. (|„, (.onunand of Lord ITcrt- 

ford brotluu" of .bino Soyniour, and of Lord Ijislo, son of tho 
l)udloy (^xocutod at (lu^ lH\!;inning of llu^ roign. lOdinbingh and 
Leitb were both yiartly bin-nt, but this barbarity served only to 
oxasperate the Scots. Meanwhile llcury bimsidf invaded Franco 
and took r>oulogu(^. 

It now b(H'aiuo a])parent that Henry's life could not last long, and 

all parties bogan to intrigue for the chief y)ower under the exi)ected 

iniriB-uoHof minority of I'jdward. If tho lot foil to the Howards, 

tho lu.bioH lor |in,,.o would probably be a reaction towards lionu^ : if 

thoohlof . . . 

power. to tlio now nobility, tho reformation might be oxpectod 



1B47.J IJcnry VJIJ. ifj-; 

t(j ^0 forwiud In llio direction of ilio LullKJ'.'in rriov* irxttiL Tlio 
new iiobiliiy won liio day. A \x\\\\\\)iAy\\) clifu'^o jif';;i,iniit Uio 
lIowanlH, thai, tli(;y quarLcnid on ilicir nliicld Uio anriH of" ICdwurd 
U)o ConfcHHor — which they hsul a, lirdif to do — urouHcd Ifonry'H 
joaloiJHy lor tho HuccoHHion of hiw Hon. Th(! \)\\\'m of Norfolk fiirn- 
Hclf and hiH cldont won, tho Karl of Surn-.y, an a<;(;ofn|)Jiii[i(;d poet, 
hut no favourer of reform, wen; eondenmed ofj ;), ehar;.';'; of trrjanon, 
and tho Hon wiUi <;xeeuted. The death of Henry, in \UM ^ oaved 
Norfolk from the Hame hite. 

ll(jnry VIM. w;i,h one of 1,]ie moiit retri:uk;iJ>le amonf', the \'.\\\['\\ of 
England. IIIh hurly ['v./\wi^ \\.\A litronf^ will have ta,ken firm hold 
upon tho Kriglinh imagination. Of ;),ll the (;overei;',ri(i wlio r(;i;Mj<;d 
HJnoo the orgfini/ation of Pii,rlijufient, he wan the mf^Ht al>nohd,<5. 
I'arliamrjnt gave to hin f)roeIam!).tiofjH th'i force of law, and f)ermittod 
him to leave the kingdom hy will. He eolleeted forced lo;j,n!i, ii<;t u[) 
and y)u]ied down inininterH an h(j chone, and riirely met with any 
rcHiHtanco to hiH winheH, wlj(;th(ir ho anked l'arliam(;nt to (;hango 
Horno ancient irmtltution, or demanded from tho law-courtH the con- 
demnation of J), wife, J), nol)h;m;u), oi' ;i, milliliter. Of iirinry'n 
[iIh p(!rKonal character tin; moht o[)poHite entimatcH ';*'"•'"-';<''"•. 
Fiavo been f(;rm<;d. Home liave refircHcntrjd him aH a monnter fjf 
wiokedriCHH, whoiie only motive w;),!i the fM;i,lifie;i,tion of hiii own 
[(aHHioriH ; othern, an a Hov<ir(Mgn of gnjat aijiJity honeiitly deniroua to 
do hiH hfiHt for Ihh country, i'etween thcHO oxtremcH tho truth mtint 
lie. 'i'hen; iii nrj douht that in many of hJH actn perHonal gratifictt- 
tifjn waii tiie chief incentiv<;: to liiii minliitorH ho WttH goncrouH ho 
long an they Huited him, ruthleiiH and vindictive when they w<!r(; no 
longer ncccHKary ; hi hin family life he wan cold, hcfirthiHK, and 
unr;erupuloui; ; w, ;i, king he Wi),H arbitrary luid e;j,[Hieiouii ; hut 
whether among all thcHC faultn there were tli<; redeenn'ng virtucH of 
lovo for hiH country and dciiiro to promote hrjr true interoHtH, it iH 
not caHy to Hay, ninco IjIh character, aH that of tho king who Bot on 
foot the Reformation, han long l^een a Huhjeet of hitter contentiofj 
between rival parti<iH. 



O 



CHAPTER III. 

Edwakd VI., 1547-1553 (6 years). 
Bom 1537. 

Chief Characters of the R^ign. — Lord Protector Somerset ; Lord Seymour ; 
John Dudley, Earl of Warwick, afterwards Duke of Northumberland \ 
Lord Russell ; Cranmer ; Ket ; Lady Jane Grey. 

Chief Contemporary Princes. 
Scotland, France. Spain. 

Mary, deposed 1567. Francis I., 1547. Charles V., resigned 1556. 
Henry II., d. 1559. 

Henky VIII. left the crown by will to Edward, his son by Jane 

Seymour, The new king was only nine years old, so the govern- 

Henry's ment had to be carried on by others during his 

arrangement minority. To provide for this, Henry had named a 

fertile .^ r. , .-r-iT n 

minority of council of cxecutors who werc to act m Edwards 

his son. ^ name. From this council the old nobility were 

excluded ; its members were all new men, but as they were equally 

divided between the old and new opinions, Henry hoped that they 

would take no decided step, so that when his son came of age he 

might be free to choose a course for himself. No member of the 

council was to have precedence over the rest — an arrangement which 

was further intended to secure a neutral policy during the minority. 

Hardly, however, was Henry dead when his carefuUy laid scheme 

was upset. The men who held the new opinions contrived to get a 

_ ., ^ majority in the council, and the Earl of Hertford, 

Failure of "^ *' ' . /. / 

Henry's uncle of the king, was appointed protector of the 
so erne. j-ealm. The executors then declared that Hemy had 
intended to raise many of them to higher rank in the peerage, and 
to give them grants out of the Church lands. Accordingly Hert- 
ford was made Duke of Somerset, his brother received the title of 
Lord Seymour, and Lord Lisle became Earl of Warwick. 

The protector was a remarkable man. His motives appear to 

Character of havc been high, his impulses were generous, his 

the protector, courage was undaunted ; but he was not a man of 

discretion, and consequently, in spite of all his ability, his rule 



134:7.] Edward VI. 195 

was a failure. In religious matters the policy of Henry VIII. was 
completely set aside. That king had avoided all changes in re- 
ligion, and in naming his son's council had been careful to hold 
the balance between the old and the new rehgions. The majority of 
the council threw all their energy into pushinsr on _ 

. . Keforms 

religious changes. They sent a commission round carried out by 
the country to pull down all images in churches, and ^ ^ council, 
to deface the pictures. They abolished the mass, and ordered the 
service to be said in English. The commissioners carried out their 
instructions with great severity and amid much disorder, which dis- 
gusted reverent people; and the substitution of English for the 
chanted Latin services, and the destruction of the ornaments, brought 
home to the country people through their eyes and ears the change 
which was going on, and caused great excitement and discontent. 

At the same time, on the plea that part of their money was 
spent on masses for the dead, the property of all the guilds was 
confiscated. The guilds were associations of the 
merchants and artisans of towns. Their money was the 

spent partly in educating the children of the guilds- ®^^<^s taken, 
men, and training them as workmen, partly in supporting the old 
and sick, partly in masses for the dead, and partly on feasting and 
merrymaking. They had existed from very early times, and their 
spoliation was a great blow to the workmen, for it not only took 
away what was really their insurance money, but also deprived 
them of many social advantages. An exception was made in 
favour of the London guilds, which were too strong to be attacked. 

Proceedings in Scotland were equally reckless. Henry VIIL 
had tried hard to secure a marriage between Edward and Mary 
Queen of Scots, and the Scottish Parliament had invasion of 
given consent in 1543. It is doubtful whether under Scotland, 
any circumstances the Scots would have agreed to the marriage; 
but Somerset, impatient of delay, gathered an army, passed the 
border at Berwick, and, supported by a fleet, marched along the 
coast. The English found the Scots posted in a very strong position 
near Musselburgh, their left resting on the Firth of Forth and 
defended in front by the river Esk. The Scots were much more 
numerous than the English, but, overrating their strength, they 
left their strong post, crossed the Esk near its mouth, and 



'196 The Tudor 5, [1547. 

tried to cut the English off from their fleet and to hem them in 

Battle of between the hiUs and the sea. In consequence of this 

Pinkie, foUy, Somerset was able to attack the Scots at an 

■^ ■' ' advantage, and, in spite of a slight success at first, they 

were thoroughly routed. The victory of Pinkie, as it was called, 

was, however, worse than useless ; for the Scots gave up all thought 

of the marriage, and sent their little queen to be educated in France, 

where after a time she married the dauphin. 

In 1549 Parliament gave its authority to a new service-book, 

called the First Prayer-book of Edward VI. This was intended to 

First Pra er- ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ churches, and, to enforce its use, an Act 

book of of Uniformity was passed. This Prayer-book was 

founded upon the old Missal and the Breviary, 

and the work of translation was mainly done by Archbishop 

Cranmer. It did not follow strictly the views either of the old 

Catholics, or of those Protestants who took their ideas from the 

teaching of the Reformers of Geneva. It was revised in 1552, 

1559, 1603, and 1662 ; but its general character has remained 

the same. At its introduction the book of common prayer was 

by no means popular, but the beauty of its language and its 

devotional tone have long endeared it to the members of the 

Church of England. 

Meanwhile the protector was troubled by the ambition of his 
younger brother, Lord Seymour. This man, who was altogether an 
Conduct of inferior character to his brother, was not satisfied 
liord Seymour. y^\^ j^jg position, and had long been intriguing to 
improve it. He first married Katharine Parr, the widow of 
Henry VIII., and on her death aspired to the hand of the 
Lady Elizabeth. He also entered into relations with the pirates 

_. of the Channel, forged cannon, and collected money 

His execution- . 

and munitions of war. He was arrested, attainted 

by Act of Parliament, and executed. 

Difficulty next arose in the western counties. There the new 

service-book had caused great excitement. Within a week of its 

-D 1* * *r. being first read, the men of Devonshire and Com- 
xCevoit 01 tne ' 

western wall were in arms demanding the restoration of the 

CO'tUIl'ti6S 

mass, the observance of the Six Articles, and aU the 
time-honoured ceremonies of their fathers. For six weeks they 



1549.] Edward VI. 197 

besieged Exeter, and when Russell came up with some German 
troops, whom the government had hired as a standing army, so 
stoutly did they hold their ground that it was only after a fiercely 
fought battle at St. Mary's Clyst, in which the English Battle of st. 
peasants astonished trained soldiers by their steadi- diary's ciyst. 
ness, that the Devonshire men were put down. In the fighting 
not less than four thousand men were killed. 

The insurrection in the west was religious ; in the east it was the 
enclosure of the commons that drove the people to revolt. Of late 
years the peasants had had a hard time. Prices had 
risen, owing to the base coinage issued by Henry VIII. eastern 
and by Edward VI.'s council; at the same time, there 
was less demand for labour, for sheep-farms were the fashion, and 
these required far fewer labourers than arable lands. Commons had 
been largely enclosed, and though this added to the wealth of the 
landowners, it was hard for the villagers, who used to turn tlieir pigs 
and geese to graze on them. Everywhere there was indignation at 
the conduct of the new landowners, who were seeking to make 
fortunes out of their lands, instead of keeping to the customs of their 
steady-going predecessors. Exasperated by their grievances, the 
peasantry of Norfolk rose under Ket, a tanner, and formed a camp 
on Household Hill, close to Norwich. There they had the ob- 
noxious gentry of the neighbourhood brought before them, and after 
conviction imprisoned them in the camp ; but they did no murder, 
and all their proceedings were perfectly orderly. Somerset sympa- 
thized with their complaints, and would have liked to redress their 
grievances. A pardon was offered, but through some misunder- 
standing was refused. Then the council appealed to arms. The 
Earl of Warwick was sent against the insurgents, and, as at St. 
Mary's Clyst, undisciplined valour feU before the skilled coolness 
of the foreign mercenaries. More than three thousand rebels fell 
in the fight, and the insurgent counties were severely punished. 

The credit of the suppression of these rebellions fell, not to the 
protector, but to the council. They had acted while he had 
hesitated ; and, despite his personal popularity, there Ti^e protector's 
could be no doubt that his rule had been a failure. ^^^® ^ failure. 
Little by little the French king Henry II. had been allowed to make 
himself master of the outposts of Boulogne, and, much against their 



198 The Tudors, [1549. 

will, the council had been forced to declare war against France. 
The finances were in complete disorder ; in aU parts of the country 
there had been riots, and in some insurrections. The protector 
could not point to anything in which he had achieved solid success. 
_ , The council, therefore, headed by Warwick, deter- 

The protector ' ' i i 

deprived of mined to take away the powers which Somerset, 

power. despite Henry's intentions, had taken upon himself; 

and though he made what resistance he could, and even thought 

of an appeal to arms, he was eventually forced to give way, and 

the councillors again became the sole authority. 

Among them the leader was Dudley, Earl of Warwick.^ He was 
^ an able, unscrupulous man, who aimed at making 

The actions of ' ^ ' . *=• 

Dudley and the the fortunes of himself and his family. The first 
care of the council had to be given to the finances. 
Unfortunately, they were ignorant of much that is now known 
about money, and they therefore foolishly debased the coinage in 
order to increase their funds, made new loans to pay the interest on 
old ones, and attempted to stop the rise in prices by fixing a maxi- 
mum rate at which goods should be sold. They, however, wisely 
made peace with France, and restored Boulogne in return for a sum 
of money. 

To keep his power, "Warwick found it needful to ally himself 

■Warwick with the advanced reformers. Had he not done so, 

°^w^thth?^^ he must have called in the help of the old nobility, 

reformers. who were totally opposed to the new ways of the 

1 GENEALOGY OF THE DUDLEYS AND THE SYDNEYS. 

Edmund Dudley (minister of Henry VII.) executed 1509. 

John Dudley (Viscount Lisle, 1542 ; Earl of Warwick, 1547), 
created Duke of Northumberland, 1651, executed 1553. 



Earl of Warwick, Robert Dudley, Guildford Dudley Mary m. Sir 

executed 1553. younger son, (m. Lady Jane Henry Sydney, 

created Earl of Grey), executed Lord-Deputy of 

Leicester, 1563. 1554. Ireland, d. 1586. 



Sir Philip Sydney, d. 1586, Robert Sydney, created Earl 

m. Frances, daur. of Sir of Leicester, 1618. (Grand- 

F. Walsingham. father of Algernon Sydney 

who was executed 1683.) 



1552.] Edward VL 199 

council. This alliance led him to quarrel with the Princess Mary, 
whom the reformers in the council wished to prevent from hearing 
mass. Mary, however, was firm, and the council, fearing to get 
into trouble with Charles the emperor, desisted. 

In 1551 Warwick had himself made Duke of Northumberland. 
He now began to be suspicious of his old rival, Somer- .^^ 

set. It was not to be expected that this nobleman becomes 
would be contented with his faU; but he probably Northxunber- 
had not advanced further than to form a general plan ^^^*** 

to change the government in his own favour, when Execution of 
Warwick had him arrested for treason, tried by his °^ 
peers, convicted of felony, and executed. His popularity was shown 
by the sympathizing crowd which attended at the scaffold. 

In 1552 Parliament again met. It issued a revised version of the 
Prayer-book, which is commonly called the Second Prayer-book 
of Edward VI., and coupled it with a new Act of Acts of the 
Uniformity. An act was also passed about the trial Parliament of 
of persons accused of treason, declaring that in future 
the accused must be convicted on the evidence of two witnesses 
at least. Parliament also took in hand the miseries caused by 
the agricultural changes. It enacted that alms were to be col- 
lected for the poor of each parish ; and commissioners were to 
see what could be done for promoting tillage. Under a false con- 
ception of its nature, usury or interest was forbidden as " odious 
and detestable." 

Meanwhile the state of the kingdom was going from bad to worse. 
The lands of the abbeys, the property of the guilds, the bells and 
plate of the churches, had been seized, and yet the condition of 
government was deep in debt ; the coinage had been *^® country. 
debased and its value regulated by government, and yet prices rose 
and goods were scarce ; the Church had been reformed, and yet 
immorality flourished ; the rapacity of the landowners, the greed of 
merchants who sold badly made goods and destroyed English 
credit, won little esteem for the new ways. Henry VIII., arbitrary 
as he was, had always been in sympathy with the people. The 
councillors had shown themselves to be mere greedy self-seekers, 
who, under the guise of religion, robbed God and the poor to fill 
their own pockets. 



200 The Tudors. [1553. 

Much was hoped from Edward's rule. Though delicate, he had 
given much study to aflfairs of state; his aspirations were noble, 

Illness of ^^d 0^ many points his views were sound. Unf ortu- 

thekingr. nately, however, all these hopes were blasted by the 
news that the young king was likely to fall into an early grave. 
No one knew what was the nature of his malady, but a terrible 
cough racked his body, and his strength steadily declined. His 
condition filled Northumberland with fear. The next sovereign, 
according to the will of Henry VHI., was to be Mary, and her 
Northumber- accession meant his ruin. In his extremity North- 
land's plot, umberland attempted a bold game. Though Mary's 
accession was the wish of the nation, he formed a plan to set her 
aside ; and as the council held the executive power, had under their 
command a guard of one thousand men, and would have the 
opportunity of acting first, he had some chance of success. His 
plan was to replace Mary by her cousin, Lady Jane Grey, the 
granddaughter of Mary of England, Duchess of Suffolk. Her he 

Death of married to his fourth son. Lord Guildford Dudley. 
Edward VI. Edward's consent was won to this arrangement, and 
he illegally made a will leaving the crown to his cousin. After this 
the king grew rapidly weaker, and in July, 1553, he died. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Mary, 1553-1558 (5 years). 
Born 1516; married, 1554, Philip of Spain. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester ; 
Bonner, Bishop of London ; Renard, Ambassador of Charles V. ; Car- 
dinal Pole ; Sir Thomas Wyatt ; Cranmer ; Hooper ; Ridley ; Latimer. 

Chief Contemporary Sovereigns. 
Scotland. France. Spain. 

Mary, deposed 1567. Henry II., d. 1559. Charles Y., resigned 1556. 

Philip IL, d. 1598. 

No sooner was Edward dead than Northumberland, concealing 
the news, sent his son. Lord Warwick, to seize Mary. This 
precaution should have been taken before, and was riig-ht of Mary 
now too late ; for Mary had early intelligence of her *° Norfolk, 
brother's death, and was on her way to Norfolk, where the Howards 
were expecting her coming. When the king's death could no 
longer be hidden, Northumberland proclaimed Lady t d t 
Jane Grey as queen. The people listened in respect- Qreypro- 
ful silence, but made no demonstration of joy, and ° ^^^® aueen. 
one lad boldly shouted, " The Lady Mary has the better title ! " for 
which he was put in the pillory. Jane herself took no delight in 
her new dignity, but she showed Northumberland that she had no 
idea of being merely a puppet in his hands, by refusing to allow her 
husband to be crowned with her without the consent of Parhament. 
Having settled matters in London, Northumberland was forced 
himself to go in pursuit of Mary. As he left London not a voice 
cried, " God bless him ! " and his advance showed Attitude of tiie 
him how much he had miscalculated the wishes of NortiSSiSer- 
the nation. Among the great mass of Englishmen land. 
Northumberland and his friends had made themselves thoroughly 
disliked by the scandalous rapacity which they had shown under the 
late king ; the changes in religion were not at all popular, and the 
harassed country looked back with regret to the rule of Henry VIII. 
Of that rule Mary seemed to be the embodiment ; she was the true 
heir according to the natural laws of succession and by Henry VIII. 's 
will, and the English people had not the least idea of setting her aside 



202 



The Tudors. asss. 



in favour of a lady who, however estimable in herself, could only be 
regarded as a puppet in the hands of the hated Northumberland. 

When the duke reached Cambridge he found that the country 

was rising for Mary, and that his own men would not iight, and 

at last he himself was obliged to cry, "God save 

Ko?thS?iber- Queen Mary!" In London the council had taken 

land's plan. ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ Northumberland and his friends were 

soon in prison, and Mary was welcomed with enthusiasm by all 

but a small knot of reformers. Unfortunately for herself, Mary 

was misled by her success. The English welcomed her because 

they thought that she represented the policy which they wanted ; 

but theh attachment was not so great that their wishes might safely 

be disregarded. For the present, however, all went 

Nortiiumber- well. Northumberland, as a matter of course, was 

^^^^' executed with his son Lord Warwick; but Lady 

Jane and her husband were merely condemned to death, and sent 

back to the Tower during her Majesty's pleasure. 

It was Mary's misfortune to suffer from ill advice. The ablest 
Englishman in her council was Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester, 
Mary's "^^^ shared her views on religion; but her chief 
advisers. adviser was Eenard, who represented the Emperor 
Charles V. Kenard's great wish was to secure the marriage of 
Mary to Charles' son Philip, and to destroy every one who might 
be a source of danger to the throne of Mary or her children. For 
this end he advised the execution of Lady Jane Grey, and would 
gladly have put the Lady EHzabeth to death if he could have 
secured the opportunity. 

Mary herself was well inclined to marry Philip, but her sub- 

The country jects disliked the match with a foreigner, and 

'^S^spaSsh^ would have preferred Edward Courtenay,i Earl of 

match. Devon, son of the Marquis of Exeter executed by 

» GENEALOGY OF THE COURTENAYS. 
Edward IV. . 



Elizabeth = Henry VIL Katharine = Sir W. Courtenay. 

Henry VIII. Edward, Marquis of Exeter, executed 1539. 

Mary Edward Courtenay, prisoner 1639-1553, 

died 1566. 



1554.] Mary. 203 

Henry YIII., and great-grandson of Edward IV. Mary disliked 
Conrtenay, and, though she had never seen him, took a great fancy 
to Phihp. Neither the EngHsh Catholics nor the reformers were 
pleased, but they could not agree to unite against the marriage; 
and all chance of successful resistance was destroyed when Sir 
Thomas Wyatt, the Duke of Suffolk, the father of Lady Jane 
Grey, and some others rose in rebellion. Wyatt reached London, 
but was there crushed, chiefly by the resolution of the queen 
herself; and the other rebellions never were serious. 

The complicity of the Duke of Suffolk inclined Mary to Hsten to 
Eenard's evil counsels, and she executed Lady Jane Grey and her 
husband ; while Elizabeth was sent to the Tower, and Execution of 
every effort made by threat and promise to induce the i^ady jane 
conspirators to compromise her. Happily evidence 
was not forthcoming, and Ehzabeth's life was saved, compromise 
After this the Spanish match could no longer be Elizabeth, 
prevented; but Parliament was strong enough to ^^^£cS^^^ 
have inserted in the marriage settlement clauses concluded, 
which secured that the queen was to have the sole government of 
the country, and was not to go abroad, and that England was not 
to be drawn into any foreign wars in consequence of Philip's affairs. 

It is now time to go back to ecclesiastical matters. Mary was 
strongly of opinion that all the evils which had happened to the 
country were direct punishments for its apostasy, and Mary's 
she gave her whole soul to an attempt to restore, not ^^eiigious views, 
only the system of Henry VIII. , but also the state of things which 
he had swept away. Three great steps must be noted. 

In 1553 the religious laws of Edward VI. were repealed. In 
1554 aU the ecclesiastical laws of King Henry VIII. which had 
been passed since 1529, except so far as they affected ^ Ecclesiastical 
the succession of Ehzabeth, were annulled ; and the reforms, 
same year Eeginald Pole, the son of the executed Countess of 
Salisbury, came back to England as papal legate. The next year 
the Parliament went further, and revived the Lollard statutes of 
Henry IV. and Henry V. Thus far they would go, but no 
further. They would not give up the abbey lands or the other 
Church property which had passed into the hands of the laity, 
Mary herself gave up to the pope what remained of the crown's 



204 The Tudor s. 



[1554. 



share of tlie spoil, with the tenths and firstfruits which Henry had 
kept, but she could not induce her subjects to follow her example. 

Had Parliament known what use would be made of the Lollard 
statutes, they would probably have been more cautious in restoring 

Severity of *^6^- They had no love for the new doctrines 
Mary towards of the reformers, which had been discredited by the 
character of Northumberland and his friends, and 
they probably only expected that a few leading heretics would be 
destroyed. Such, however, was not the view of Cardinal Pole, or 
of Bonner and Gardiner, and the queen was as eager as they to 
extirpate the heresy which she looked on as the curse of the land. 

Mary had just suffered from a terrible disappointment. For 
months she had expected to have a child. Unhappily she was 

Mary's dis- deceived by the symptoms of an incurable disease, 
appointment. ^^^ ^\<^-^ the hope was gone, the most charitable 
view is that her mind was affected. Had a child been born, the 
succession of Elizabeth, Mary's greatest dread, would have been 
averted. Day by day she saw how eagerly the nation watched 
over her sister, whom she had hated from her cradle, and whose 
very beauty was an eyesore to the withered queen. But it was 
not to be, and in her grief the wretched woman gave herself up 
to carry out her false ideas of propitiating Heaven by a wholesale 
massacre of the Protestants. 

Accordingly, no sooner were the statutes passed, than in 1555 the 

persecution began. The first to suffer was Kogers, Canon of St. 

_ _ Paul's, a translator of the Bible. Then followed 

Persecution ' . 

of the Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester ; Ferrar, Bishop of St. 

David's ; and many more. Soon the troubles of the 
emperor caused Philip to quit England, and Mary, in her grief, spurred 
on the bishops to further exertions. Eidley, Bishop of London, and 
Latimer, Bishop of Worcester, the greatest preacher of his time, 
were burnt together at Oxford. In 1556 Cranmer was chosen to be 
the next victim. Unhappily his nerve was not equal to the trial, 
and he agreed to sign a recantation of his views ; but when, in spite 
of this, his enemies still determined to burn him, he denounced his 
weakness, and plunged into the flames the unworthy hand which 
had been the instrument of his fall. Meaner victims followed in 
scores. But persecution defeated its own end. Men learned to 



1558. Mary. 205 

admire the constancy of the victims, and to believe in a faith for 
which martyrs could die ; and the laity as a whole looked on with 
disgust, and hoped that the hour of Elizabeth would soon come. 

Meanwhile Mary was outstripping her predecessors in contempt 
for the law. Jurors were sent to prison for returning verdicts 
against the wish of the court. Members of Parlia- 

° , . Miserable 

ment were imprisoned for their conduct in the House, condition of 
Customs duties, unsanctioned by Parliament, were ^ ^°^^^ ^' 
laid on merchandise. Forced loans were levied. Everywhere the 
royal officers were setting the constitution at defiance. The crown was 
crippled for money, military stores were rotting, fortresses unrepaired, 
the fleet unseaworthy. England never saw a more wretched time. 

Such was the state of things when in 1557 Mary, to please her 
husband, and in defiance of the marriage settlement, -v^ar with 
plunged the country into war with France. A few France, 
troops joined the Spaniards in the Low Countries, and shared the 
capture of the town of St. Quentin. 

This triumph was, however, dearly purchased by the loss of 
Calais — a fortress as dear to the English of that day as Gibraltar is 
to us. Its fortifications were out of repair, its garri- 
son was wretchedly small ; and when the commanders 
assured the government that it was going to be attacked, Mary's 
friends could only answer that they had certain intelligence that 
it was not. But the commanders were right, and an over- 
whelming force attacked the fortress by sea and land. Then the 
government lost their heads ; they gave contradictory orders ; they 
found that their ships could not sail, that their men had no arms • 
and within sight of the English coast a fortress, which had been 
in our hands for two hundred years, was lost in the year 1558. 

The blow was felt terribly in England, by no one more than by 
Mary herself. Now Calais had fallen, the government were all 
energy. But the time for action had passed : the winds 

p ,, , ^, , ' Effect of the 

were unfavourable, a storm destroyed the transports, loss of Calais 

and although some English ships had the honour of °^ ^^^' 

assisting the Spaniards at the battle of Gravelines, Calais had 

passed irrevocably from our grasp. Mary's health 

was unfitted to bear the blow. Deserted by her 

husband, disappointed of children, hated by the subjects whom she 



2o6 The Tudor s. [isss. 

saw eagerly awaiting the succession of the child of Anne Boleyn, 
who would sweep away all she thought most dear ; with Cardinal 
Pole, her only trusted friend, stretched on his death-bed, and under 
censure of the pope for unsoundness of doctrine, — ^few people have 
ever lived to see so many hopes blighted in the course of five years 
as the unhappy Mary Tudor. Bravely, however, like a Tudor as 
Deatii of ^^® "^^^j ^^^ faced the inevitable end, sent a message 
Mary. -^o Elizabeth, whom she recognized as her successor, 

and passed away from her sorrows in the early morning of November 
17, 1558. A day later died Cardinal Pole, who had succeeded 

Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury. Gardiner 
Gardiner and had died in 1555, SO that the chief agents and 

advisers of Mary in her attempt to restore Eoman 
Catholicism in England and to replace the English Church under 
the authority of the pope, were removed from the scene about the 
game time as their mistress. 



CHAPTER V. 

Elizabeth, 1558-1603 (45 years). 
Born 1533. 

Chief Characters of the Reign, — Archbishop Parker ; William Cecil, Lord 
Burleigh, and his son Robert Cecil ; Sir Francis Walsingham ; Sir 
Nicolas Bacon ; Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester ; Robert Devereux, 
Earl of Essex ; Lord Howard of Effingham ; Sir Francis Drake ; Sir 
Humphrey Gilbert ; and Sir Walter Raleigh. 

Chief Contemporary Princes, 
Scotland. France. Spain. 

Mary, deposed 1567, d. 1587. Henry II., d. 1559. Philip II., 

James VI., d. 1625. Francis II., d. 1560. 1556-1598. 

Charles IX., d. 1574. 
Henry III., d. 1589. 
Henry IV., d. 1610. 

Elizabeth was in her twenty-sixth year when she was called by 
the acclamatioDS of the nation to become queen. According to the 
will of Henry VIII., the next heir after her was Lady Elizabeth's 
Katharine Grey, younger sister of the Lady Jane; suppo™dby 
but, according to the ordinary rules of inheritance, Philip. 
Mary, Queen of Scots, had a better title. A few who thought 
Elizabeth illegitimate would have placed Mary on the throne at 
once. Mary, however, had married the Dauphin of France, so 
that her accession meant the union of England, Scotland, and 
France under one head. This Philip of Spain was obliged to 
prevent at all costs, so he was forced to support Elizabeth. 

It was lucky for Elizabeth that such was the case. She found 
her kingdom weakened by the bad rule of Mary and the council of 
Edward VI. ; she was actually at war with France ; Elizabeth's 
and, as Philip was her only ally, it would be most relations with 
serious to lose his help. Philip, however, was 
anxious to keep her friendship, and offered to many her if a dis- 



2o8 The Tudor s. [1558- 

pensation from the pope could be obtained. But to this Elizabeth 
could never consent, for she could not ackno"w ledge the right of the 
pope to grant such a dispensation without admitting that Henry 
VIII.'s marriage with Katharine of Aragon had been lawful, from 
which it would follow that she herself was illegitimate. She 
therefore ventured to refuse him, and dared, moreover, to offend 
him by making such a settlement of religious affairs in England 
as Philip, being a rigid Catholic, could not possibly approve. 

The new queen had no intention of submitting to the pope, but 

she had no Hking for the views of the ardent Protestants. She 

Hier religious ^"^^ t^^r chief adviser, Cecil, wished that the doctrines 

views. Qf ^jjQ Church of England should be so ill defined that 

few could not find an interpretation which should include their views 

within its pale, and whose services should be so ordered that any 

The Church of Christian could attend them without offence. The 

England. services, however, were to be in English, and the 
Bible was to be freely circulated in the mother tongue. Over this 
Church the queen was declared to be in all causes, ecclesiastical as 
well as civil, supreme within her own dominions. The forty-two 
Articles of Eeligion in which Cranmer had defined the doctrines of 
the Church of England were reduced to thirty-nine. The Second 
Prayer-book of Edward VI. was revised, and Parliament passed 
an Act of Uniformity ordering it to be used in all churches, and 
forbidding the use of any other form of public worship. Every- 
body was to go to church, or incur the payment of a fine of one 
shilling for each offence. 

This settlement was received by the nation without enthusiasm, 
but without resistance. The old Catholics would have liked to keep 
Attitude of the the mass ; the new reformers would have cleared 
^^Ef^abett^s*^^ away much which they regarded as superstitious; 
reforms. but of the clergy, only about two hundred out of 
nine thousand refused to accept the arrangement and resigned their 
livings. Mary's bishops, however, with one exception, refused and 
were deprived, which enabled Elizabeth to appoint men to whom 
her aims were acceptable, at the head of whom was Matthew 
Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury. Of the laity many were dis- 
contented, and a few refused to come to church; but the great 
mass accepted the change as inevitable, and gradually, while the 



1559.] Elizabeth. 209 

old generation died away, a new one sprung up, to whom the 
Enghsh service became as dear as the mass had been to their 
fathers. Eoman Cathoho laymen who refused to attend church 
were called recusants. Some Protestants refused to accept Eliza- 
beth's scheme, and after a time separated themselves from the 
Church. Of these the chief sects were the Presbyterians and the 
Independents or Brownists. Others, though they re- 

^ 70./ ^jj^g Puritans. 

mained in the Church, agitated for further reforms, 
objecting specially to the use of the ring in marriage, the cross 
in baptism, and to other practices which they thought to be super- 
stitious. To these and to the Separatists was given the general 
name of Puritans, 

To carry out Elizabeth's policy, commissions were from time to 
time granted to bishops and others, giving them court of 

power to inquire into and punish cases of immorality Higix com- 
and heresy, and offences against the acts of Supremacy 
and Uniformity. In 1583, this commission became permanent under 
the name ot the Court of High Commission. 

In foreign affairs, Elizabeth's first business was to make peace 
with France. This she did in conjunction with Spain, stipulating 
that Calais, or a sum of money as its equivalent, Enzabetti's 
was to be restored in eight years — a condition not foreign policy, 
likely to be kept. No one expected that England could stand 
alone ; it was assumed that it must lean either upon France or 
upon Spain. It was equally assumed that Elizabeth would marry 
some one, either a subject or a foreigner. Elizabeth disappointed 
both these expectations. She and her friends saw that so long 
as France supported the claim of Mary, Queen of Scots, Spain 
could never ally with France against England, and she trusted to this 
fact to keep England out of war until it was strong enough 
to hold its own. She also saw that a marriage with a foreigner 
would displease the Enghsh and entangle her abroad, and that 
one with an Englishman would cause jealousy at home. If she 
married a Catholic, the Protestants would expect a new perse- 
cution; if a Protestant, it would fling the Catholics into the arms 
of Mary, Queen of Scots ; and for these reasons she determined to 
remain single. For the present, therefore, her policy was to keep 
on good terms with both France and Spain, and not allow herself 

p 



210 The Tudor s, ,1559- 

to be drawn into any match, though she allowed it to be thought 
that her hand was still a prize to be won. 

The first change in the situation came from Scotland. The 
popular reformers there had taken up arms against the widow of 

The scotcii James V., who, as regent for her daughter Mary, 

proposal. ^Q dauphiness, was supported by French troops. 
The leader of the reformers was John Knox, who, however, had 
offended Elizabeth by a letter written during the reign of Mary 
against the rule of women. The Scottish Protestants called on 
Elizabeth to help them, and it was proposed that Mary should be 
declared deposed, and that the two kingdoms should be united by 
a marriage between Elizabeth and the Earl of Arran, who stood 
next after Mary in the Scottish succession. Elizabeth, however, 
found that Arran had not the qualities which would make him a 
desirable husband, while the vacillation of the Scots made her 
distrust their alliance. The scheme, therefore, fell through. 

During its discussion the Erench king, Henry IL, died, and Mary, 

Queen of Scots, and her husband Francis IL, became Queen and 

King of France. The new sovereigns called them- 

TJnionof ° . 

France and sclves also Quecn and King of England. In 1560 

CO an . p'j-ancis died, so the union between France and 

Scotland was dissolved. The chief power in France fell into 

the hands of the family of Guise — to which Mary, mother of Mary, 

Queen of Scots, belonged — who were staunch Catholics, and in 1562 

Elizabeth sent aid to the French Protestants, or Huguenots, in order 

EUzabetiL' ^^ embarrass the government. The struggle between 

attitude the Protestants and Huguenots in France was of 

Hug-uenots and great usc to Elizabeth, as it prevented the Catholics 

Catholics. from taking an active part against her, and the 

Protestants were her friends. When the Catholics had the upper 

hand she was afraid they would join Spain, and therefore had to 

temporize with Philip ; when the Protestants were the stronger, she 

could be bold. This fact makes her conduct appear vacillating, 

because it depended on circumstances which she could not control. 

Revolt of the After a time the Netherlands, the richest part of 

Netherlands. Philip's dominions, were driven to revolt by Philip's 

arbitrary measures. This weakened Spain, and so made Elizabeth's 

position relatively stronger. For a long time, however, she had to 

be very careful. 



1568.] Elizabeth. 211 

When her husband was dead, Mary, Queen of Scots, returned 
home (1561). She was beautiful and clever; but she was not popular 
Avith her subjects, because she was a Catholic, while EeturnofMary 
they were Protestants. After refusing several to Scotland, 
marriages which were suggested to her, Mary Marriage with 
married her cousin, Henry Lord Darnley.i He HenryDamiey. 
was a grandson of Margaret, widow of James IV,, by her second 
husband, and so stood next to Mary in the succession to the 
English crown. PoHtically it was a good match, but Damlcy 
was a bad husband. He was younger than his wife, foolish and 
jealous, and in 1566, just before his son, afterwards James, King 
of England and Scotland, was born, he joined with some other 
nobles to murder Mary's secretary, David Rizzio, in Murder of 
whom she placed a great deal of trust. Rizzio was Rizzio. 
dragged from the room in which he was at supper with the queen 
and killed in the antechamber. Mary never forgave Barniey 
her husband. He was murdered the next year, and murdered, 
shortly afterwards Mary married Lord Bothwell, who had planned 
the murder, to which many thought that Mary herself had been 
privy. The nobles rose in revolt. Mary was beaten at Carberry 
Hill, forced to abdicate, and imprisoned in Lochleven _, 
Castle. In her stead her little son James was carberry nm. 
crowned king. In 1568, Mary escaped from Loch- ^ausside 
leven and was joined by an army of Catholics, but Mary fled to 
was again defeated at Langside, and this time she England, 
fled to England and cast herself upon the mercy of Elizabeth. 

To the queen the arrival of her cousin was somewhat embarrass- 

1 GENEALOGY OF DARNLEY. 

(1) James IV. m. Margaret Tudor m. (2) Earl of Angna. 
killed 1513. I 



James V. m. Mary of Guise. Margaret m. Matthew Stuart, Earl of Lennox. 

d. 1542, I 

Mary, Queen of Scots, m. Lord Darnley. Charles Stuart, Earl of Lennox, 
executed 1687. I killed 1567. I 

James I. of England. Arabella Stuart m 

d. 1625. William Seymour. 



212 The Tudors, [i569. 

ing. Elizabeth refused to see her, but ordered the charges against 
her to be investicrated before a conference at York. 

EflFect of Mary's ,^ , t j^i i /• xi t-. t i 

arrival on Mary s presence roused the hopes of the Enghsh 

theEneiisH. c^thoKcs. The Duke of Norfolk thought to marry 

her, but was put in the Tower for his presumption. The same year, 

1569, the Catholics of the north of England, under the Earls of 

Revolt of the Northumberland and Westmoreland, broke into revolt, 

north. iiafi mass sung in Durham Cathedral, and marched on 

Tutbury, where Mary had been placed. Mary was hurried at once to 

Coventry, and the rebeUion was a failure. The leaders escaped, 

but the government savagely wreaked their vengeance on the masses, 

and men were hanged at every market cross and village green from 

Wetherby to Newcastle. Mary was then kept in confinement. 

Meanwhile EHzabeth and Parker had persevered in their plan 
of makmg all people worship alike. They found resistance from 

Beiig-ious ^oth extremes. Catholics who refused to attend 

intolerance, church were fined. Priests who celebrated mass were 
searched for, tortured, put to death, or imprisoned. On the other 
hand, the dislike to Elizabeth's Church settlement grew among the 
clergy, and in 1564 many of the London clergy, who included 
some of the ablest men of the time, refused to obey the Act of 
Uniformity, and left the Church. They received a great deal of 
sympathy, and were specially patronized by Robert Dudley, Earl 
of Leicester. 

Leicester was a great favourite of Elizabeth. Throughout her 
reign EHzabeth had about her men of two stamps. There were 

Elizabeth's the statesmen, such as Cecil, Lord Burleigh, with Sir 

favourites. Nicholas Bacon and Sir Francis Walsingham, to whom 
she listened for their wisdom, and who addressed themselves to her 
mind. There were also Lord Leicester, Sir Christopher Hatton, and 
others who flattered her vanity and appealed to her heart. Many 
thought that Elizabeth would some day marry Leicester, and she 
sometimes allowed him and men like him to have too much influence. 
Meanwhile the Catholics were beginning to be convniced that they 
had nothing to hope from Elizabeth, and in 1570 Pope Plus V. issued 

Elizabeth ex- a bull cxcommuuicating her, and releasing all her 
communicated. g^Tjijects from their allegiance. This made it needfid 
for Elizabeth to look about for allies, and in 1571 she seriously 



i579,j Elizabeth. 213 

thouglit of marrying Henry of Anjou, brotlier of the Frencli king ; 
but the negotiations came to nothing. A year later the Catholic 
party in France massacred their chief opponents on Massacre of st. 
St. Bartholomew's Day, and it seemed likely that a Bartholomew. 
Catholic league might be formed against her ; but fortunately 
Philip was occupied by the revolt of the Netherlands, so this danger 
passed away. 

The Papal Bull encouraged the supporters of Queen Mary, and plots 
were made on her behalf which were a constant source of terror to 
Elizabeth. Happily the government spies gave ex- t-, , . 
cellent information of what went on ; but Parliament Mary on the 
was very anxious, and would gladly have attainted 
Mary had Elizabeth been willing to allow it. One of these plots 
was managed by an Italian named Eidolfi ; the Duke of Norfolk had 
a share in it, and was executed in consequence in 1572. 

The great fear was lest France or Spain should take advantage of 
the situation to invade England, while Mary's friends raised an 
insurrection at home ; and so needful did it seem to Negotiations 
keep peace either with France or Spain, that in 1581 ^itJ^STSSIe 
Elizabeth, though now forty-eight, made a pretence of Anjou. 
of intending to marry Francis, Duke of Anjou, a brother of her 
former suitor, who had become King of France. The negotiations 
served to gain time, but came to nothing. 

It was clear, however, to all parties that the state of suspense 
which Elizabeth had contrived to maintain since her accession could 
not be much longer protracted, Mary's friends trnsettied state 
were as active as ever. Numbers of young Catholic o^ ^^^ cotmtry. 
priests, trained in hostility to Elizabeth, were pouring into the 
country. Conspiracies against the queen's life were numerous, 
and it was found that Throgmorton, the leader of one of these, who 
was taken and executed, had been acting with the knowledge of 
the Spanish ambassador. 

In the New World, fighting between the English and Spaniards 
had been going on for years. The Spaniards wished to exclude all 
other nations from a share either in their discoveries or their trade, 
and to this Englishmen would not submit. Expeditions were fitted 
out to visit America, and these plundered Spanish towns, and 
captured Spanish treasure-ships at every opportunity. In 1679, 



214 The Tudof's. 



[1579- 



Francis Drake, of Devonshire, sailed through the Strait of Magellan 

into the Pacific Ocean, plundered Valparaiso and other Spanish 

towns along the coast of South America, and, having 

the isTew laden his ships with gold and silver, sailed home 
"World. -j^y. ^j^Q Cape of Good Hope, being the first English- 
man who sailed round the world. Another terror of the Spaniards 
was Sir John Hawkins, who again and again attacked the Spanish 
settlements in the West Indies ; he was the first to capture negroes 
in Africa, and to sell them as slaves to the Spaniards to work in 
the mines and plantations. Other Englishmen strove hard to rival 
the Spaniards by finding a short route to China and India round the 
north of America. This was called the North-West Passage, and 
the names of Erobisher's and Davies' Straits still commemorate the 
discoveries of two of Ehzabeth's sailors. 

Even more important were the attempts of Sir Humphrey Gilbert 

and his half-brother, the great Sir Walter Ealeigh, to found an 

Colonization of ^^g^ish colony on the shores of North America. 

North Gilbert's first expedition was made in 1578, but 

America. proved a failure. In 1583, he and Ealeigh organized 
a joint expedition which took possession of Newfoundland, but 
Gilbert himself was shipwrecked and drowned, and the survivors 
returned home. Ealeigh, however, who, more than any other 
Englishman, saw the importance of founding a colonial empire, 
persevered ; and in 1584 and 1585 two other expeditions were 
sent, which made a settlement at the mouth of the Chesapeake 
river. The colony was called Virginia, in compliment to the queen. 
In 1586, however, the colonists returned home, and though Ealeigh 
sent out rnQjij expeditions between 1587 and 1602, he did not 
succeed in forming a permanent settlement during Elizabeth's reign. 

The antagonism of Philip and Elizabeth in Europe, and the rivalry 
■War between the English and Spaniards in America, were 

inevitable, making War inevitable, and both Cecil and Leicester 
would have been glad to see the queen plunge into it at once. 

Elizabeth, however, had the greatest dislike to take any iiTCvo- 
Treat Cable stcp ; but in 1585 she went so far as to make 

with the a treaty with the revolted Netherlanders, and to send 
Leicester to their assistance. In 1686, the Nether- 
landers made Leicester their chief officer, under the title of Stadt- 



1587.] Elizabeth, 215 

holder; but he did not distinguish himself, and during the siege of 
Zutphen one of the most brilliant Englishmen of the day, Sir 
Philip Sidney, was killed. 

War was now certain between England and Spain, and the 
existence of Mary, Queen of Scots, became a still greater danger to 
Ehzabeth. It was believed that she was plotting _ ,. „ 

r o Execution of 

against the queen's life, and in 1584 an association Mary, Queen oi 
was formed, with the sanction of Parhament, to protect 
Elizabeth from assassination, and at the same time a strict watch 
was set over Mary. When the government had determined to act 
against Mary, they were not very scrupulous in the honesty of their 
dealings. A trap was laid to entangle her in a treasonable cor- 
respondence, and in 1586 proof was obtained that she was privy 
to a plot for Elizabeth's assassination which had been made by a 
young gentleman named Babington. Mary was tried by a special 
commission, and found guilty. Elizabeth was long in signing the 
warrant for her death, and even when she had done so, intended to 
delay its execution ; but the council had it carried into effect, and 
in February, 1587, Mary was executed. The news of her death was 
received by the nation as a relief. 

In dying, however, Mary left her claim to the crown to the 
Infanta of Spain, Philip's daughter, who was in a remote degree 
a descendant of John of Gaunt. Philip at once 
determined to enforce her rights by an invasion of 
England. For this end he prepared a gigantic fleet, named by 
the Spaniards the Armada. His preparations were not allowed to 
go on without interruption. In 1587, Sir Francis Drake led an English 
fleet against the great port of Cadiz, and destroyed a large part 
of Philip's stores and transport. The next year, 1588, all was 
ready, and the Armada set sail. Philip's orders were to sail up 
the English Channel through the Straits of Dover, and then to 
land at one of the Netherland ports in order to take on board 
the Duke of Parma, with his well-trained army. The whole body 
was then to attempt the invasion of England. 

On the English side vigorous preparations had been made for 
their reception. A considerable army was ready to preparations 
defend London. The militia of every county was ready ^°^ '^^^• 
to march at a moment's notice as soon as the beacon glare sent 



2i6 The Tudors. [ises- 

from hill to hill the news of the landing. The chief reliance was 

placed on the fleet, commanded by Lord Howard of Effingham, who 

was a Eoman Catholic, and also a relation of the queen through 

Anne Boleyn. With him were Drake, Frobisher, Hawkins, and 

all the great seamen of the day. Unfortunately, Elizabeth's turn 

for economy had cut down the stores of powder and victuals to 

the lowest point ; but the sailors waited with brave though anxious 

hearts the issue of the combat. 

When the huge fleet hove in sight, the English did not attempt 

to stop its progress. They let it pass, and then, quickly pursuing, 

they hung upon its rear and attacked every ship that 
Manner of tlie ./or ^ j r 

Engiisii lagged behind. The wind was up Channel, so the 
^ ^^ ' light English vessels were able to catch the Spanish 
hulks when they chose ; and if they drew off, the Spaniards could 
not pursue against the wind. In this way the fight raged along the 
Channel, the English carefully taking the powder out of each ship 
they captured in order to supply their wants. At last the Straits 
of Dover were reached, and the Spaniards took refuge in and 
near Calais harbour, and waited for events. But the English 
could not afford to wait; both ammunition and provisions were 
running short; so, to force the Spaniards on, they sent fire-ships 
among them, and forced them to cut their moorings. 

Then came the crisis ; if the Spaniards could make the Nether- 
land shore, they had still no cause to despair. But the wind helped 
^ \. ^. » the English, who contrived to get between the 

Destruction of ... 

the Spanish Spaniards and their friendly port, and to drive them 

into the North Sea. Once there, return against the 

wind was impossible. Norway and Denmark were unfriendly. A 

storm rose, and nothing remained but to make the best of their way 

round the rocky coast of Scotland and Ireland, and so return home. 

The English fleet did little more against them ; but the winds blew, 

the waves rose ; storm after storm drove the Spanish vessels on the 

cruel rocks ; and of that noble armament, which might have changed 

the history of the world, a few shattered ships alone reached Spain. 

The defeat of the Spanish Armada, the most glorious event in 

the reign of Elizabeth, completely changed the posi- 
Effectofthe . f > r j ■- & r 

victory on the tion of England. During the remainder of the reign 
country. England had little to fear from Spain. Her soldiers 



1598.] Elizabeth. 217 

and sailors attacked the Spanish ships wherever they could find them, 
even against enormous odds, and in 1596, when Philip had col- 
lected a new Armada at Cadiz, Howard, Raleigh, and Essex sailed 
into the harbour and destroyed or captured all the ships under 
the guns of the forts. No more had the queen to trim her 
sails between France and Spain. Henry of France was proud to 
accept Elizabeth as his ally, and the enemies of the queen at 
home and abroad despaired of success. It was a turning-point in 
other ways. Within a year Leicester died. Walsingham soon 
followed him. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, was growing old; and new 
figures came upon the scene. 

Of these the most striking was Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex. 
He had the attractiveness of Leicester, but he was a greater man. 
He had great schemes, but he did not agree with the r^j^g -^^^^ ^^ 
other statesmen of the time. Burleigh and the Essex. 
queen wished to bring to an end the Spanish war ; Essex wanted 
to contmue it, for he thought England might gain much by conquest 
and colonization. Of late the queen had been very stern both to 
the Roman Catholics and to the Puritans; Essex, on the other 
hand, had used expressions showing a wish to tolerate both. He 
also failed to conciHate Lord Burleigh's son, Robert Cecil ; and he 
was viewed with jealousy by Sir Walter Raleigh, Lord Cobham and 
other courtiers. On the other hand, he was the idol of the people 
and the favourite of the queen. 

Throughout the reign Ireland had been a constant source of trouble 
and expense. The Tudors had steadily pursued the pohcy of taking 
land from the rebel chiefs and giving it to English state of 
settlers. This was extremely unfair, because in Ireland. 
Ireland, land belonged, not to the chief only, but to him and his clan, 
or sept ; and so the innocent clansmen suffered for the guilt of their 
chief. Consequently rebellions, in which the English settlers were 
massacred and their homes burnt, were numerous. One of these 
rebellions broke out in 1595. It was led by O'Neal, O'Neal's 
Earl of Tyrone, and help was given to him by Spain. rebeuion. 
O'Neal was an excellent general, and made the most of the bogs and 
woods which embarrassed the regular soldiery. Sir John Norris 
died, worn out by pursuing him, and Sir Henry Bagnal was killed iu 
an ambuscade at Blackwater. Essex had talked so much of what he 



2i8 The Tudors, (1533- 

would have done had he been there, that all parties united to press 

Essex sent to him to go out as deputy. He was obliged to accept 

rebeuion^ the post, but did no better than his predecessors ; and 

He returns t ^'^'^i fearing that his enemies were plotting against 

England. him, he Suddenly, without leave, returned home and 

threw himself on the queen's mercy. His case was investigated, 

and he was kept for a time in honourable confinement. 

Essex' spirit chafed at this, and on his release he began to 

correspond with James of Scotland, and to form friendships with the 

„ Puritan separatists, and collected round him bodies of 

Essex plots ^ , 

against the discontented Catholics and disbanded soldiers. There 

queen. .^ _^^ doubt that he meant to change the government 

by force ; but the council heard of his proceedings, and determined 

He is seized ^^ strike first. Essex resisted ; but his plans were not 
and executed, ready, and he was seized, tried, and executed for 
treason. His death is said to have preyed very much upon 
Elizabeth's mind. 

In the latter years of the reign Parliament showed greater 
independence than in the earlier. The defeat of the Armada 

Attitude of ^^d relieved the English of a great anxiety, and 

Parliament. ^Si^x it they were less ready than before to put 
up with high-handed conduct on the part of the court. Their 

Monopolies chief grievance was the existence of monopolies, 
abolished. These, like our patents, were rights to sell a particular 
article, but they were not given, like patents, as a reward for 
invention, but to some courtier or other, and the extra price he 
charged was really a tax on the nation for his benefit. These had 
been granted recklessly, as an easy way of satisfying greedy 
applicants for court favour, and were very unpopular. Parliament 
in 1601 insisted on their being abolished, and when the queen saw 
that the House was in earnest she gave way. 

Though the reign was in many ways glorious, it had been a hard 
time for the poor. Ehzabeth had done good service by renewing 
Distress among the coinage, and getting rid of the bad money of 
the poor. Henry VIII. and Edward VI. ; but prices had still 
kept high in proportion to wages, and the enclosure of commons 
had still gone on. Consequently in every parish there were numbers 
of poor ; and as, now the monasteries wore gone, there was no one 



1603.J 



ElizabeiJi. 



219 



The poor law. 



whose business it was to relieve them, the churchwardens were 

allowed first to ask voluntary alms, and afterwards to levy a rate for 

then- support. In 1601 all the acts on the subject 

were recast, and the maintenance of the impotent 

poor, and the setting the able-bodied to work in workhouses, was 

intrusted in each parish to regular guardians. 

After the death of Mary, Queen of Scots, it was pretty certain 
that her son James would succeed Elizabeth; for the claim of 
Katharine Grrey and her children in virtue of the 
will of Henry VIII. was no longer thought of. 
The queen did not like to think of James being her 
successor, but it began to be understood that he would be the next 
king; and when Elizabeth died, in 1603, there was no question as 
to the succession. 



Deatli of 

Queen 
Slizabetb.. 



CHIEF GENERAL EVENTS UNDER THE TUDORS. 

Court afterwards known as Star Chamber established 
Sebastian Cabot reaches the mainland of America 
Marriage of Margaret of England to James IV. 

FallofWolsey 

Church of England separated from Rome ... 

Pilgrimage of Grace 

English Bible set up in the churches 

Dissolution of the monasteries completed ... 
Issue of bad money begun by Henry VIII. 
Ket's rebellion against the "Enclosures " ... 
Marriage of Mary to Philip of Spain 
English Church reformed by Elizabeth 
Mary, Queen of Scots, arrives in England ... 
Northern insurrection ... 
Court of High Commission established 

Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots 

Ealeigh's first attempt to colonize America 
First Charter granted to the East India Company 

Execution of Essex 

Poor law established 



hed ... 1487 


1497 


1502 


1529 


1532-1534 


1536 


1539 


1543 


1549 


1554 


1559 


1568 


1569 


1583 


1587 


1600 


1601 


... ..• ^~-~ 



2 20 The Tudor s. 



CHIEF BATTLES, SIEGES, AND TREATIES, UNDER 

THE TUDORS. 

Battle of Stoke ... 1487 

Treaty called the "Great Intercourse" made with the 

Netherlands 1496 

Battle of Guinegaste 1513 

,, Flodden 

,, Solway Moss 1542 

„ Pinkie 1547 

„ St. Mary's Clyst 1549 

„ Mousehold Hill 

Defeat of the Armada 1588 

Victory at Cadiz ... 1595 

Battle of Blackwater 1598 



BOOK YII 

THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH 



XVIT.— THE STUARTS. 

James I., = Anne of Denmark, 
1603-1625. I d. 1619. 



Henry, CharleSj 
d. 1612. 1625-1649. 



Elizabeth =; I rederick 



Charles II., 

1660-1685. 



James II., 

1685-1688, 
d. 1701. 



Marv 
d. 1660. 



d. 1662. 



William 

of 
Orange, 
d. 1650. 



James Anne, 

(the old 1702-1714. 
Pretender), 
b. 1688, 
d. 1765. 



Mary, = William III., 

1688-1694. 1688-1702. 



of the 
Palatinate. 



Prince Kupert, 
d. 1682. 



Prince Maurice, 
d. 1652, 



Sophia = Elector of Hanover, 
d. 1714. I 

George I., 
1714-1727. 

George II. 



XVIII.— BOURBON KINGS OF FRANCE, 1589-1715. 
Henry IV., 1589-1609. 
Louis XIII., 1609-1643. 
Louis XIV., 1643-1715. 



CHAPTER T. 

James L, 1603-1625 (22 years). 
Born 1566; married, 1589, Anne of Denmark, 

Chief Characters of the Beign.—SJT Walter Raleigli ; Robert Cecil, Earl of 
Salisbury ; Catesby ; Robert Carr, Earl of Somerset ; George Villiers, 
Duke of Buckingham ; Sir Francis Bacon (Viscount St. Alban's) ; 
Edward Coke ; John Selden ; John Pym. 

Chief Contemporary Princes. 

France. Spain. 

Henry IV., d. 1610. Philip III., d. 1621. 

Louis XIII., d. 1643. Philip IV., d. 1665. 

James VI. of Scotland, the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and 
Lord Darnley, became James I. of England by right of descent 
from his great-grandmother, Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. 
He was the first of the Stuart sovereigns, a family who, with the 
exception of the Commonwealth from 1649 to 1660, reigned in 
England one hundred and eleven years. At his accession James 
James' was thirty-seven years old. He had been King of 
^^viJw?on'^*^ Scotland since he was a baby, and he had very 
government, exaggerated ideas as to the rights of sovereigns. . 
The Tudors had never troubled about the theory of government 
so long as they had the power to do what they liked, and they 
had usually taken care that what they did agreed with the wishes 
of the majority of their subjects. James, on the contrary, thought 
much of the theory of government, but had little idea of winning 
respect, while his slovenly and gluttonous habits contrasted ill 
with the dignity of the Tudors. For all that, James was a learned 
man, and knew more about foreign affairs, and about history and 
religious controversy, than most of his contemporaries ; but he 
had little judgment, and was called by the witty Henry IV. of 
France, " the wisest fool lq Christendom." Parliament had begun 



1604.] James I. 225 

to be restive under Queen Elizabeth, and it was not likely that 
it would be more steady when the reins were handed to such 
a man as the pedantic James. On the other hand, it could not 
be expected that the new sovereign would give up rights which had 
been exercised by his predecessors, so that a quarrel between king 
and Parliament was inevitable. On his road from Scotland, James 
hanged a pickpocket at Newark without the form of trial, and this 
act, which violated a host of statutes from Magna Carta downwards, 
was a fitting prelude to the new era. 

James took for his minister Robert Cecil, the son of Elizabeth's 
minister Burleigh, who inherited the policy of his father. This 
was a very sore blow to Sir Walter Raleigh and Lord Cobham 
who had hoped to supplant Cecil, and were disappointed to 
find that James intended to give him his confidence. Raleigh, 
moreover, was deprived by James of the post of captain of 
the royal guard. They therefore discussed a plan for getting 
rid of Cecil, and possibly thought of placing on The Main and 
the throne Arabella Stuart (see p. 211), niece Bye Plots, 
of Lord Darnley, in case James proved obdurate. At the same 
time, some Roman Catholics and Puritans, led by Watson, a priest, 
and Lord Grey de Wilton, a Puritan, who had been friends 
of Essex, talked of seizing the king and forcing him to grant 
toleration. These two plans were called the Main and the Bye 
Plots. Cecil heard of them, arrested the leaders, ^ 

' ' Imprisonment 

and cleverly tried them as if the two plots were ofHaieig-ii 
the same. By this means he contrived to get rid ^^ ° ^^' 
of his rivals, Cobham and Raleigh, who were condemned to death 
and thrown into the Tower; and for nine years Cecil was the 
leading minister. 

Both Roman Catholics and Puritans hoped to find favour with 
James. The first relied on his descent from Mar}^, Queen of Scots, the 
second on his Presbyterian education ; but they soon found that he 
was determined to uphold the religious settlement of ™, ^ 

^ ° The Hampton 

Elizabeth. In 1604 a conference was held at Hamp- Court 

ton Court between the bishops and the representa- 
tives of the Puritans. It simply served to show how transiatk)n of 
much they differed, and the only good that came from ^^® Bible, 
it was an order for a new translation of the Bible. This translation 

Q 



226 The Stuarts. hqq^ 

was made carefully, and is still used in churches under the name 
of the Authorized Version. With the Roman Catholics James had 
more sympathy, but Parliament alone could alter the laws, and 
James' first Parliament, which met in 1604, was Puritan in feeling, 
and, so far from doing this, pressed for greater severity. 

The more reckless Roman Catholics, therefore, who had shared 

in Essex' conspiracy and the Bye Plot, under the lead of Catesby, 

The Gun- determined to blow up king and Parliament together. 

powder Plot. Their plan was well laid, and they were fortunate 
enough to hire some cellars under the House of Lords, where they 
stored their gunpowder ; but the date of Parliament's meeting being 
again and again put off, and their funds running short, they were 
obliged to let some rich men into their secret, and their plans were 
made known to the government. The meeting of Parliament was 
at length fixed for November 5th, 1605, but at the last moment 
the cellars were searched, and Guy Fawkes, a Yorkshireman, who 
had fought in the Spanish service, was found ready to fire the train. 
On learning the news of his arrest, the other conspirators, who had 
assembled at Dunchurch, in Warwickshire, intending to raise the 
country as soon as the catastrophe occurred in London, fled for 
their lives, and fought desperately when attacked. By accident, 
however, their powder blew up, and many of them were killed. 
The rest, with Fawkes, were tried and executed. Their plot was 

^ ^, , ^ a terrible misfortune for their fellow-Catholics. 

How tlie plot 

affected the Quite unjustly they were credited with a reckless 

willingness to use any means, however horrible, to 

gain their ends, and many years passed away before ignorant 

people ceased to believe that when any evil happened the Roman 

Catholics were at the bottom of it. As soon as Parliament again 

met, the laws against the Roman Catholics were made more severe. 

As might have been expected, from the divergence of their views 

on religion and politics, the relations between James and his Parlia- 

james' first ^^^^^ were from the first unfriendly. In his first 

Parliament, summons, issued in 1604, James ventured to warn 

Control over the electors not to choose outlaws, or men of extreme 

religious views. Buckinghamshire, however, chose 

Goodwin, an outlaw; and a new election was ordered by the 

Chancellor. The House of Commons remonstrated against this 



1608.] James I, 227 

violation of their rights, and the king had to give way. This victory 
gave the House the right to settle the merits of all disputed elections, 
and was of great importance. In the case of Shirley, Arrests of 
who had been imprisoned for debt, it was established members, 
that no member could be arrested, except on a charge of treason, 
felony, or breach of the peace. At the close of the session of 1604 
the House of Commons recorded their opinion that the privileges of 
Parliament had " been more universally and dangerously impugned 
than ever, as they suppose, since the beginnings of Parliaments." 

James' most serious violation of the law was in respect to 
taxation. His main sources of income were the Crown lands, the 
feudal dues, and tonnage and poundage, which were ^j^g 

granted to him for life. Tonnage meant a tax of impositions, 
from \s. ^d. to 2>s. levied on each tun of wine or liquor coming 
into or going out of the kingdom, and poundage a similar tax of 
^d. to Is. on every pound of dry goods. The rates on each article 
were recorded in a book. James, who through the extravagance of 
the court was sore pressed for money, claimed to alter these rates 
as he chose, and the additions he made in 1608 were called the Im- 
positions. In the case of Bates, a merchant who refused to pay, the 
judges, who could then be dismissed from their posts at the king's 
pleasure, decided against him ; but Parliament never ceased to protest 
against the Impositions, which infringed their right to control taxation. 

On matters of general pohtics the Commons agreed with the king 
no better than on matters of privilege. In 1607 Parliament 
refused to allow England and Scotland to be united james* policy 
into one kingdom, as James would have liked, and rejected, 
contented themselves with doing away with the hostile border laws, 
exactly a century before the union of the two countries in 1707. 
James proposed to commute the payment of feudal dues, and the 
rights of wardship and marriage, for a fixed tax of £200,000, 
levied upon lands held by feudal tenure. This the Commons 
thought too much, and the plan broke down. 

On foreign politics James was no more in accord with his subjects 
than in other matters. James was very desirous, as Elizabeth had 
latterly been, to make peace with Spain. This policy james' foreign 
was unpopular, for the English had made money by policies, 
sacking Spanish towns and plundering Spanish treasure -ships, and 



2 28 The Stuarts, cidos- 

had no wish to be at peace. Elizabeth, moreover, had always 
wished to keep up a close alliance with France ; but James wished 
to make Spain England's chief friend, and this the nation disliked. 
As long as Eobert Cecil, Lord Salisbury, lived he tried to hold 
Influence of James to the traditions of Elizabeth. In this he 
Robert Cecil, ^g^g tolerably successful, and in 1612 he negotiated 
a marriage between James' daughter Elizabeth and Frederick, 
Elector of the Palatinate, one of the leading Protestant princes 
of Germany, and one who was hostile to Spain and Austria. Un- 
fortunately, Cecil died shortly after the wedding, and by an unhappy 
coincidence he was soon followed by James' eldest son Henry, a 
Death of prince of great promise, who was the hope of those 
Prince Henry. ^Jiq disliked Spain. After the death of Cecil and 
James aUies Princo Henry, James drifted rapidly away from 
with. Spain. France, and became a close ally of Spain. He 
hoped much from a marriage between his second son Charles and 
a Spanish princess, for he expected to pay his debts out of the 
lady's dowry, and also to gain increased influence abroad. 

Meanwhile the energy of the country was finding new out- 
lets. After the failure of Essex in Ireland, Mountjoy was made 
deputy, and before the close of Ehzabeth's reign 
settlement in he had put dowii the rebellion, and bridled the Irish 
of Ulster by building small forts in every position 
of importance, which he garrisoned with picked soldiers well pro- 
vided with provisions. His successor was Arthur Chichester, one 
of Ireland's best rulers, who did justice to all ahke. Unfortunately, 
new troubles threw a great deal of land into the hands of the 
government. Chichester advised that the best land should be given 
to the Irish, and the remainder to English and Scottish settlers. 
The government, however, rejected his counsel, and after giving the 
best lots to the settlers gave what remained to the Irish. The new 
comers showed themselves to be men of energy, and in their hands 
Ulster, which had been the wildest, became the most prosperous 
district in Ireland ; but the wrongs of the dispossessed Irish were 
never forgotten, and sowed the seed of a wild revenge at a later day. 
After Sir Walter Ealeigh's imprisonment the project of colonizing 
Virginia was taken up by a body of merchants and others, styled the 
Virginia Company. It was some time before they made a permanent 



b 



1612.1 James L 229 

settlement, but at length, in 1607, an expedition led by John 
Smith succeeded, and so laid the foundation of the Beeinnineof 
United States. The same year a colony was also So^ai 
established on the West Indian Island, Bermudez, so Empire, 
that the date 1607 may be taken as that when the English colonial 
empire was founded. The next settlers in America were Separatists, 
who disliked the religious settlement maintained by James. In 1608 
a body of Nottinghamshire Independents left England, and settled 
at the town of Leyden in Holland. After a time they thought they 
should prefer a country life, and in 1620 they sailed from England 
to America in the Mayflower^ and called the place where they landed 
New Plymouth. Their land was situated in a temperate climate, 
like that of England. It had no gold, nor was it suited for growing 
sugar or tobacco, so the colonists kept abroad the habit of indus- 
triously tilling the ground with their own hands, and so remained 
vigorous and energetic, neither enervated by a relaxing climate nor 
demoralized by the institution of slavery. Their example was fol- 
lowed by others, and soon a new England, Puritan in faith and 
agricultural m profession, grew up on the eastern coast of North 
America. (See map p. .351.) 

Under Elizabeth the English had carried on a flourishing trade 
with India and Africa and the ports of the Mediterranean, and 
just before her death, in 1600, the East India Trading- 
Company was formed for the purpose of carrying on companies, 
trade with that country. Under James commerce acquired still 
greater importance. In those days trade was almost always in 
the hands of companies, just as railways are now, and every branch 
had its company, such as the Smyrna Company, the Turkey 
Company, and so forth. Most of these companies had their houses 
of business in London, and their establishment led to London 
getting far ahead of other English towns as a mart. This increase 
of London was looked upon with jealousy by the kings, but it was 
a great source of strength to Parliament, of which the London 
merchants were the most energetic supporters. 

When Cecil was dead, James allowed himself to fall into the 
hands of favourites. Of these the first was Robert james' 
Carr, a worthless but handsome young man, whom favourites, 
he made Earl of Somerset. To please him James furthered tlie 



230 The Stuarts, 11613- 

divorce of the Earl of Essex from Ms wife, whom Somerset then 
married. Presently it was found that Somerset and his wife were 
concerned in a murder. She was tried and found guilty, and 
Somerset was disgraced. The next favourite was George VUliers, 
also handsome but a better man than Somerset. On him the king 
showered favours, and, though he had had no experience, preferred 
his advice to that of wiser men. Under the guidance of these 
favourites the expenses of the court rose threefold, and in 1614 
James, in spite of the additional income gained from the Imposi- 
tions, found himself obliged to call a Parliament. Some of the 
The Addled courtiers undertook to secure a friendly one, for which 
Parliament, reason they were called " undertakers ; " but when it 
met, the king found it so hostile that, being dissolved before it had 
passed a single measure, it was called the Addled Parliament. 

For seven years he ruled without a Parliament, and during those 
years James remodelled the government after his own ideas. In 
legal matters his chief adviser was Sir Francis Bacon, author of 
the "Essays," and of the "Advancement of Learning," who rose to 
be chancellor in 1618. Like most Chancery lawyers. Bacon had a 
high idea of the king's power, and wished to see it used well ; but he 
was too weak to take a strong line, and was willing to keep his place 
whUe his good advice was disregarded. As a lawyer. Bacon's rival 

Dismissal '^^^ Edward Coke, who was dismissed from his post of 

of Coke. Chief Justice in 1615, as a warning to the judges that 
they held their posts only so long as they pleased the king. 

Meanwhile the greatest of Elizabethan heroes, Sir Walter 
Raleigh, was a prisoner in the Tower, wiiting a history of the world, 
and amusing himself with chemical experiments. However, in 
1616, James ordered his release, and allowed him to go on a voyage 
to Guiana in search of a gold-mine, whose whereabouts he had 
learnt on a former voyage. At the same time, he was ordered not 
to enter into hostilities against the Spaniards. It seems to have 
been James' idea from the beginning that, if Raleigh found the mine, 
the benefit would go to the crown, but that, if he failed, the fault 
could all be laid upon his shoulders. Unfortunately, the expedition 
proved a failure. Raleigh himself remained at the mouth of the 
river, and sent his son, under the care of Captain Keymis, to search 
for the miae. A fight with the Spaniards ensued, in which young 



1621,] James I. 231 

Ealeigh was killed, and Keymis, despairing of success, returned to 
the ships. Kaleigh then proposed that an attack ^aieigii-s 
should be made on the Spanish treasure-fleet ; but his expedition and 
captains refused to follow him, and the expedition 
returned to England. Except at court, Ealeigh was the most 
popular man in England, for James' friendship for Spain was 
detested by the nation ; but James, thinking only of not offending 
the Spaniards, threw the whole blame for the fighting on Sir Walter, 
and, after offering to give him up to the Spaniards, had him executed 
on his old sentence, which had never been commuted. 

The disgraceful sacrifice of Raleigh, the extravagance of the 
court, and the influence of favourites brought James' government 
into utter contempt; but in 1621 James thought that he might 
induce his subjects to forget the past by asking them to aid him in 
helping the German Protestants. War between the Catholic and 
protestant German States had long been imminent, and matters 
reached a crisis when, in 1619, the Protestant Bohemians elected 
Frederick of the Palatinate their king, instead of the Catholic 
Ferdinand of Styria, who two days afterwards was chosen Emperor. 
As James was his father-in-law, Frederick hoped to have Eng- 
hsh support, and also that of the Protestant powers, while he 
expected to be attacked by the Austrians and Spaniards. While 
James was hesitating what to do, the Austrians The Thirty 
attacked Bohemia and the Spaniards the Palatinate, "^®^^s' '^^^• 
and in 1620 Frederick was expelled from both countries. These 
events roused the greatest indignation in England. Volunteers hurried 
to Germany, to fight for the cause of the princess and her husband, 
and even James was for a moment roused, and called a Parliament. 
Most Englishmen hoped that war with Spain would be immediately 
declared, for they saw that the shortest way to help Frederick was 
to attack his real enemy, Spain ; but James still relied on negotiations, 
and hoped to find some way of thwarting Spanish pohcy without 
involving himself in hostihties with the Spaniards. 

When Parliament met, however, the Commons, especially as 
they found that James had no notion of war, gave more atten- 
tion to the abuses at home than to foreign affairs. Parliament 
Their chief act was to impeach some of the king's ofi62i. 
ministers. Impeachment, or the trial before the House of Lords 



232 The Stuarts. [loas. 

of an offender accused by the House of Commons, had been disused 
in England since the case of the Duke of Suffolk in 1450. It was 
Revival of ^^^ revived, and Sir GUes Mompesson and Francis 
impeaciiment. Bacon, now lord chancellor and Viscount St. Alban's, 
were impeached. The charge against the former was the holding of 
monopolies, against the latter the receiving of bribes. Both were 
convicted and punished. Irritated by this assault on his ministers, 
James was less able to bear the inquiries which the Commons 
directed into abuses. James asserted that their privileges sprang 
from his grant, and forbade them to meddle with religion and foreign 
affairs. The Commons retorted that " their liberties and privileges 
Parliament ^^rc the Undoubted birthright of the subjects of 
dissolved. England," and James tore the protest from their 
journals with his own hand. He then dissolved the Parhament, 
and imprisoned Coke, Selden, Pym, and two others. 

James then went back to his negotiations with Spain. He hoped, 
that if his son married the infanta, the Spaniards would be wilHng to 
interfere on behalf of his son-in-law Frederick. This 
negotiates the Spaniards had no intention of doing, but thought 
witii Spam. ^^^ Jamcs ought to show some favour to the English 
Catholics. This James could not do without the consent of Parlia- 
ment, and to gain that was out of the question. Hence there was 
no prospect of a settlement. The negotiations, however, dragged 
on, and in 1623 Charles and Buckingham went in 
Bucking-ham disguisc to Madrid, and tried to win the infanta's 
go to Madrid, j^^^ -^^ ^^^ romantic adventure. The pair reached 
Madrid safely, but the Spaniards were too astute to allow their 
flank to be thus turned. They still held to their terms, and as 
Buckingham proved himself a bad negociator, the treaty was 
broken off, and Charles and he returned home, loudly denouncing 
the ill faith of the Spaniards and calling for war. 

This quarrel had the effect of making Charles and Buckingham 

popular. In 1624 a new Parliament met, and 

votes supplies eagerly voted supplies for a war with Spain. A 

^•thV^^^n treaty was made for a marriage between Prince 

Charles and Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. 

of France, and sister of the reigning King, Louis 

XIII., and war was imminent when, in 1625, James I. died. 



CHAPTEE IT. 

Chakles I., 1625—1649 (24 years). 
Born 1600 ; married, 1625, Henrietta Maria of France. 

Chief Characters of the Reign, — George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham ; 
Sir John Eliot ; John Pym ; Sir Thomas Wentworth, afterwards Earl 
of Strafford ; William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury ; Prynne ; 
Chambers ; John Hampden ; Edward Hyde ; Lord Falkland ; Lord 
Manchester ; Lord Essex ; William Cavendish, Earl (afterwards 
Marquess and Duke) of iS'ewcastle ; Ferdinand, Lord Fairfax; Oliver 
Cromwell ; Sir Thomas Fairfax ; the Duke of Hamilton. 

Chief Contemporary Princes. 
France. Sweden. 

Louis XIIL, d. 1643. Gustavus Adolphus, 

Louis XIV., d. 1715. 1611-1632. 

At his accession Charles I. was twenty-five years old. In 
character he was a great contrast to his father. James had been 
slovenly and unkingly in his habits ; Charles was ciiaracter of 
every inch a king, and won the respect of all by his ciaaries i. 
manners and deportment. On the . other hand, James had been 
distinguished among kings by his education and by his acquaintance 
with the theory of government, both in Church and State ; Charles 
was narrow-minded, and had no special knowledge of these matters. 
James' early history had taught him the need of giving way; Charles 
had not learned this. As Sir Ferdinand Fairfax said of him at his 
iiccession, "The king in his own nature is very stiff." Worse than all, 
Charles was wanting in ingenuousness. He trusted much to king- 
craft, and his subjects formed the opinion that his word was not 
one on which they could rely. At the same time, it must be borne 
in mind that Charles' training had taught him to look on all the 
powers exercised by his predecessors as his rights, and that it could 
not be expected that he would give them up without a struggle. 



234 The Stuarts. [I625- 

Tn pursuance of the policy of the last reign, Charles married 
Henrietta Maria of France, and made war against 

marriag-e. Spain. The taxes which had been voted to James 

War declared for life ccased at his death, and when Charles' 

agains pain. ^^^^ Parliament met, the Commons, instead of voting 

tonnage and poundage for life, voted it for one year only, just 

Tonna eand ^^ ^^ Parliament votes all taxes at the present 

poundage time. Along with this grant Parliament also voted 
two subsidies. These the king accepted, but the ton- 
nage and poundage bill was dropped in the Lords, after one reading. 

As part of the plan for the Spanish war, Charles lent to the 
French eight ships. Eichelieu, however, the French minister, 

Irritation ^sed the ships, not against Spain, but against the 
ofParnament. Huguenots of Eochelle. This irritated the English 
Protestants, and when they learnt that the marriage treaty with 
Henrietta had given her full hberty for worship, and that the court 
was showing favour to the Eoman Catholics by pardoning convicted 
priests, Parliament became so outspoken against the government, 
and especially against Buckingham, that Charles had recourse to 
a dissolution. 

The popularity of Charles and Buckingham now disappeared; 
and, in order to recall it, an expedition, intended to rival the 
^ Failure of achievements of Drake and Ealeigh, was sent against 

^t?£d2!^ Cadiz. Unfortunately it turned out a complete 
Second Pariia- failure, and left the country more irritated than 

mentcaued. before. To provide himself with funds Charles 
collected tonnage and poundage, just as though they had been 
granted ; but in spite of this, he was forced by his necessities to ' 
call a second Parliament in 1626. 

In calHng it, Charles contrived to get rid of some of the most out- 
spoken members by naming them sheriffs, so that they could not be 
returned as knights of the shire ; and to exclude the Earl of Bristol, 
formerly ambassador at Madrid, whose revelations might have been 
most inconvenient to Buckingham, by refusing to send him a writ. 
^ These devices completely failed : the members elected 

Impeaclinient . 

of jBucking- were as determined as ever, and the lords heartily 

^^' espoused the cause of Lord Bristol. Sir Dudley 

Digges and Sir John Eliot boldly impeached Buckingham. The 



1628.] Charles I. 235 

king in a fury sent them to the Tower. The Commons refused to 
continue business till they were released, and Charles Parliament 
was forced to give in. The impeachment was then dismissed, 
resumed, and as the Commons refused to grant any supplies till their 
grievances were redressed, the second Parliament was dismissed. 

Still the war went on. The exchequer was empty, and to pay his 
expenses Charles levied tonnage and poundage as before, and also 
collected a forced loan, as had often been done by FigMing' 
Henry VIII. To add to his difficulties, Charles abroadand 

•' ' discomfiture 

quarrelled with France, and war broke out with that at iiome. 
country. To help the Huguenots, a great expedition was sent to 
occupy the Isle of Rhe off Rochelle. Buckingham himself led it, but 
the scheme was a hopeless failure, and gave the nation further 
proof of the incompetence of its rulers. In consequence, men 
were more than ever unwilling to pay the forced loan ; but five 
gentlemen who refused to pay were cast into prison, and the 
judges, subservient as usual, decided that the king's special order 
was a good ground of imprisonment — a decision which set Magna 
Carta at defiance. Meanwhile poor men were pressed for the 
army and navy under martial law, and billeted on the refractory 
gentlemen. 

Still Charles' necessities forced him to apply for money, and in 
1628 his third Parliament met. The Commons at once renewed 
their attack on Buckingham, and under Sir Thomas , ciiaries' third 
Wentworth and John Pvm drew up the famous Peti- J,^^^Jf ^f?^ * 

^ _ _ The Petition 

tion of Right. This document, which ranks with of Right. 
Confirmatio Cartarum and Magna Carta, condemned in four great 
clauses the recent acts of the government. These laid down (1) 
that no freeman be required to give any gift, loan, benevolence, 
or tax without common consent by Act of Parliament; (2) that 
no freeman be imprisoned or detained contrary to the law of the 
land; (3) that soldiers or mariners be not billeted _ ,. 

' ^ ' . . . Parliament 

in private houses ; (4) that commissions to punish grants five 
soldiers and sailors by martial law be revoked and no 
more issued. To this Charles gave an unwilling consent, and in 
return Parliament liberally granted five subsidies. It was then 
prorogued. 
During the recess several events of importance happened. In 



236 The Stuarts. [less- 

ecclesiastical matters Charles sided with the High Church party. 
Attitude of He was not a Roman Catholic, and had no idea of 

Charles becoming one ; but he sympathized with those who 

religion. wished to retain as much as they innocently could 
of the splendour of the old Catholic worship, and disliked the Puri- 
tans, who wished to go further along the path of reform. Just after 
Advancement *^^ prorogation of Parliament, Laud, who thoroughly 

of Xiaud. sympathized with the king's views in this matter, was 
translated from Bath and Wells to London, and, though he was not 
made Archbishop of Canterbury till 1633, immediately became the 
king's chief adviser in ecclesiastical business. Laud was a pious 
and earnest man, thoroughly convinced that what he did was right; 
but, like the Puritans, he was narrow-minded, and could not believe 
that those who differed from him were as conscientious as himself. 
He was therefore viewed with great dislike by the Puritans, and his 
connection with Charles did the king a great deal of harm. 

About the same time that Laud became Bishop of London, Sir 

Thomas Wentworth, who had been one of the chief promoters of 

the Petition of Right, came over to the king's side. 

"Wentworth. n , t im t i i ^ -r^ 1 • i -. 

comes over to Personally he dishked the rule 01 Buckingham, and 
t e ng s SI e. ^^^ averse to his illegal proceedings ; but he disliked 
still more the tendency he saw in Parliament to take upon itself the 
king's business of governing the country. 

Not long afterwards Buckingham, who was at Portsmouth pre- 
paring a new expedition against France, was assassinated by a 
Buckingham's Private enemy named Felton. His removal from the 
assassination, scene made way for Wentworth, who was soon raised 
to the peerage as Baron Wentworth. He was made president of 
the Council of the North, and from this time took a leading part 
in the king's councils. 

Meanwhile the king, declaring that they did not come under the 
Petition of Right, was collecting tonnage and poundasre 

King collects i o o r t> 

tonnage and as before. Alderman Chambers of London objected 

poundage. ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ thrown iuto prison for his refusal. 

Under these circumstances Parliament reassembled in 1629. 

■Parliament I* ^^ o^ice objected to the collection of tonnage and 

objects. poundage, but the Commons were prevented from 

passing a resolution on the subject by continual adjournments. 



1633.] 



Charles I. 237 



At last the Speaker was held in his chair till a resolution had 
been passed, that they who make innovations in religion, or who 
exact or pay taxes not granted by Parliament, are enemies of the 
kingdom. After this. Parliament was dissolved as a Parliament 
matter of course, and following the evil ways of his dissolved, 
father, and, as a matter of fact, of most sovereigns too, the king sent 
Sir JohnEhot and others to the Tower. After a time „ ^ , _,. ^ 

Sir John Eliot 

all but Eliot made their peace with the government. sent to the 
He refused to give way. His health was undermined, o^er. 

and when he died the king would not even allow his relations to 
bury his body outside the prison. 

Eleven years of arbitrary government followed, during which 
Laud and Wentworth were the king's chief advisers. Wentworth 
saw clearly enough that the difficulty about money -Wentworth 
was at the root of the king's troubles, and he therefore advises 
advised economy in every direction. Peace was made peace made 
with France and Spain. Inquiry was made into the with France 
mode of collecting taxes, and the receipts of the 
treasury were increased by greater strictness. 

In spite, however, of these economies, the king, finding that his 
revenue was not yet equal to his expenditure, had to cast about for 
means to increase it. For this end he revived certain „ „, , 

Ho-w Charles 

rights of the crown which had fallen into disuse. For increased Ms 
instance, he enforced the provisions of an old statute 
which ordered all holders of land to the value of forty pounds a year 
to be knighted. Those who neglected to comply were Enforced 
fined. In this way the country gentry were irritated, knighthood. 
Three years later the king took a step most gaUing to the nobUity. 
From time to time those landowners who had property adjoining the 
royal forests had encroached upon their boundaries, till Kocking- 
ham Forest, as an example, had decreased in width Reclamation of 
from sixty miles to six. In 1633 Charles sent out a the forests, 
commission to inquire into the encroachments, and either to reclaim 
the lands or fine their present holders. In this way large tracts 
were restored to the forests and considerable sums secured for the 
treasury ; but the irritation of the nobles was great, as they were the, 
chief losers, and the Earl of Essex in particular found himself 
stripped of a great part of his property. Long forgotten Acts of 



238 The Stuarts. tiess- 

Parliament were revived, and offenders against them punished. 
For example, some were fined for pulling down houses on their 
estates, and others for building houses in London. The same year 
the king attacked the corporation of London, and confiscated the 
settlements in Ulster which had been given to it by James L, on 
the ground that they had been mismanaged. Mismanagement, 
doubtless, there had been, but it was not wise in Charles to set 
against his rule the richest city in the realm. The king's chief 
adviser in these matters was Noy, who became attorney-general. 

In Noy's measures the chief object was to raise money, but 
further irritation was caused by a class of measures whose first object, 
at any rate, was the benefit of trade. The regulation 
of this was regarded by the king as one of his duties, 
and though the Act of 1624 forbad the grant of monopolies 
to individuals, Charles behoved that he would stimulate business 
and improve the quality of goods, by granting the sole right to deal 
in certain articles to companies formed for the purpose. In this 
he was mistaken. The prices charged by the monopolists were 
high, while the goods supplied were bad ; and as the sale of soap, 
starch, beer, bricks, and other articles, were in the hands of the 
monopolists, the indignation both of the private traders and of 
the consumers was widespread. 

Meanwhile Wentworth had in 1633 become Lord-Deputy of 
Ireland. There he wished to show the king how much could be 
"Wentwortii in ^'^^^ hy a firm and far-sighted ruler. During his 

Ireland. office he reformed every branch of government, 
introduced the linen manufacture, and secured large tracts of land 
for the crown. Above all, he made the army thoroughly efficient, 
and induced the Irish Parliament to make a grant of money. 
Unfortunately his reforms were carried out without regard to the 
feelings of the Irish, whose interests were everywhere sacrificed 
to those of the king and the English merchants and manufacturers. 
His rule, therefore, prepared the way for a terrible reaction. 

During this time Charles ruled England with a heavy hand. The 
Court of Star Chamber stifled discontent with the government, the 
Court of High Commission checked the complaints of the Puritans, 
and punished clergy who did not keep the strict letter of the Act of 
Uniformity. This Court was created in Queen Elizabeth's reign, for 



1634.] Charles I. 239 

the purpose of seeing that the Act of Uniforniity was carried out. 
It was on the whole useful, but its attacks on the Puritans made 
it very unpopular. Both the Courts of Star Chamber ^^^^ chamber 
and High Commission examined the accused, which andmgii 
was contrary to the practice of the other courts, 
and judged cases without a jury. As early as 1628 Alderman 
Chambers had been imprisoned by the Star Chamber for refusing 
to pay tonnage and poundage. In 1630 Dr. Leighton, a clergyman, 
was sentenced by the same court to be pilloried, flogged, and 
deprived of his ears for writing against the bishops. In 1634 a 
similar sentence was passed by it upon Prynne, a law}^er, for 
writing a book called " Histriomastix, or the Player's Scourge," which, 
by attacking the character of female actors, was supposed to reflect 
upon the queen. Those who offended in any way against the views 
of Charles and Laud were constantly liable to attack, and in 1637 
Prynne was again brought up, with Burton, a clergyman, and 
Bastwick, a physician, and savagely punished for their attacks upon 
Church government. It must not, however, be supposed that the 
Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission were wholly 
tyrannical. The Court of Star Chamber tried cases between 
private persons quickly and well, while the Court of High Com- 
mission fought hard against immorality; but these things were 
forgotten in the indignation caused by their overbearing treatment 
of the opponents of the court. 

In 1634 the king, unable to fill his purse by the means above 
mentioned, ventured to levy a direct tax. This tax was called ship- 
money, and was an old institution. To meet invasion King- levies 
or in time of war the king had the constitutional sMp-money. 
right to collect ships, or, in their place, money, from the seaport 
towns. In 1634, by the advice of Noy, Charles, on the true plea 
that English commerce needed protection from the Algerine pirates, 
levied ship-money on the seaports. The writ demanding it was 
carefully drawn up according to the old precedents, and was levied 
without much complaint. The money gained was used by Charles, 
act against the pirates, but to strengthen the fleet in view of a war 
with the Dutch. Next year a new writ of ship-money was sent 
out, by which the tax was levied upon inland as well as seaboard 
counties. This was quite unconstitutional, for there was no pre- 



240 The Stuarts, &639- 

tence of immediate danger. The money was paid, though with 
some grumbling. But when in the next year a new levy was 
ordered, it became clear that Charles intended to make ship- 
money a perpetual tax, which could be levied whether voted 
by Parhament or not. Had Charles succeeded he would have 
destroyed the bulwark of the English constitution, and it was 
well that John Hampden, a Buckinghamshire gentleman, came 
boldly forward and refused to pay the tax, on the broad gi'ound that 
The ship- Charles had no right to levy it. When the case was 

money trial, ^p^gj j^ 1637, seven judges out of the twelve decided 
for the king. Nominally the king had gained his point, in reality 
Hampden's trial gave a fatal blow to the government policy. Men 
grudged their money more when it was demanded as a right than 
when they thought they were giving it as a favour. 

During these trying times the settlements in America had made 
rapid strides. The Pilgrim Fathers of the Mayflower were joined 
The American ^J many a man who hated the tyranny of Laud and 

settlements. Wentworth. The new colony of Massachusetts was 
founded in 1629 for the distinct purpose of being a refuge for those 
who disliked Charles' policy in Church and State. In 1635 no 
less than three thousand fresh settlers went out. Even noblemen 
thought of bemg colonists. Frightened by the sympathy between 
the colonists and the Puritans, Laud wished to bring the settlers 
under his sway. They resisted, and his interference only tended 
to make the new states more bigoted than before. 

It was not in America only that Laud thought to enforce his views. 

He wished to bring Scotland over to Episcopacy. - Greatly against the 

mi. « ^ will of the Scottish people, James I. had reintroduced 

The Scots r r ■> 

refuse a the Order of bishops. They possessed little power, 
1 urgy. ^^^ ^^ Scots clung firmly to their dislike of a 
regular Liturgy. In 1637 Laud determined to introduce a Prayer- 
book modelled on that used in England. The first attempt to use 
it was met by a riot, in which the reader barely escaped with his 
life, and within a year almost the whole Scottish nation had bound 
itself by a new Covenant to preserve the Presbyterian form of 
Church government. In 1639 Episcopacy was abolished in Scotland 
by the General Assembly, and as Charles was not expected to 
agree, preparations were made for war. 



1640.] Charles /. 241 

The, turn of Scottisli affairs had naturally been watclied in Eng- 
land with the greatest interest. It was the first sign of armed 
resistance to Charles' government, and what would „, , . 

=■ ' , The king 

come of it none could tell. As was expected, the king appeals to 
appealed to arms. But he met with faint support, 
while the Scots, many of whom had seen service abroad in Germany 
and the Netherlands, were able to collect a formidable force. The 
two armies reached the neighbourhood of Berwick, but Charles, 
feeling his weakness, negotiated with the Scots, and Pacification of 
the Pacification of Berwick was agreed upon. Both Berwick, 
parties, however, looked on it as a mere truce, and preparations to 
renew the war were made on both sides. 

Under these circumstances Charles found himself again forced to 
summon a Parhament. The fourth Parliament of Charles I., often 
called the Short Parliament, met in April, 1640. The The short 
king hoped that jealousy of the Scots would lead it Parliament, 
to support him ; but the members, led by Pym, applied themselves 
to remedjang English grievances, and when it seemed likely that 
they would refuse Charles' offer to give up ship-money in return for 
twelve subsidies, a bargain which would have seemed to recognize 
the legality of ship-money, the king hastily dissolved the Parhament 
before it had sat a month. 

In the summer the Scottish army crossed the Tweed. Charles' 
soldiers, ill fed and commanded, with no heart in their work, allowed 
themselves to be beaten at Newburn, on the Tyne, The scotch 
and the Scots poured into Yorkshire. In this ex- '^iweed^ 
tremity the king fell back on a precedent of Edward Battle of 
III., and called a meeting of the old Magnum Kewbum. 
Concilium, or Council of Peers. The peers met at York, and 
though they pledged their credit to raise money, declared for a 
Parliament; and the king, seeing no other course open to him, 
made a truce with the Scots, and called a Parliament for Novem- 
ber 3, 1640. 

On that day the Long Parliament met. It numbered among 
its members John Pym, John Hampden, and John Selden, who had 
already suffered for the cause of freedom, and Oliver The Long 
Cromwell, Edward Hyde, and Lord Falkland, who I'ariiament. 
were afterwards to attain celebrity. For the most part the members 

K 



242 The Stuarts, [.i64o- 

belonged to the class of country gentlemen. There were few 
citizens or townsmen among them, for most of the comitry towns 
preferred to choose a representative from one of the county families. 
John Pym, for instance, sat for Tavistock. Few members were not 
owners of landed property. They were not, therefore, as a class 
likely to be revolutionary; but to them had come down the obstinate 
spirit of resistance to arbitrary power which had in the Middle Ages 
resided in the nobility. Next to the landed gentry stood the lawyers, 
who were certainly not the men to readily support violent changes in 
the constitution. There were, however, no two opinions about the 
badness of the late government, both in Church and State. Went- 
worth (now Earl of Strafford) and Archbishop Laud were at once 
impeached of high treason. Prynne, Burton, Bastwick, Chambers, 
and others, who had been imprisoned by the unpopular law courts, 
were released. The ecclesiastical policy of Laud was reversed, 
and a commission was issued by the Commons to deface and demolish 
the images, altars, and monuments in churches. It was quite certain 
that nothing had encouraged Charles and his friends to act as they 
had, so much as the uncertainty whether a Parliament would ever sit 
Triennial Act ^^ inquire into their acts. To remove this doubt for 
passed. the future, a Triennial Act was passed, by which it 
was ordered that more than three years should not elapse without 
a Parliament being summoned. 

These measures occupied the autumn and winter of 1640 and 1641, 
and in March the trial of Strafford began. Lord Strafford was really 

Strafford' being tried, not for treason against the king, in whose 
trial. interest he had acted, but for treason against the state. 

This charge was very difficult to prove, and when the trial was 
nearly over, the Commons, fearing that Strafford would escape, gave 
up the impeachment and passed instead a bill of attainder, as had 
often been done under the Tudors. This change in the course of 
procedure, to secure the death of their opponent, seems to us most 
unfair ; but it was supported by some who were afterwards Royalists, 
and only fifty-nine members under Lord Digby and Selden voted 
against it, as Strafford had few friends even among the courtiers. 
The attainder, however, could not be complete without the king's 
consent to the bill. Charles had pledged his word for Strafford's 
safety, but he broke it, and by giving his consent to the bill deprived 



1641.] Charles I. 243 

himself for ever of the ablest of his friends. Strafford was exe- 
cuted on May 12, 1641. When he died the popular 
leaders felt that their greatest opponent was gone. 

Just before the death of Strafford, the king had given his consent 
to a bill by which he agreed that Parliament should not be adjourned 
or dissolved without its own consent. This measure, 

,., i'xjji.-i !> , Parliament not 

which was only intended to induce men of money to to be dissolved 
lend with greater confidence on the credit of Parlia- without its 

° _ o-wn consent. 

ment, was of great importance, as on it rested the legal 
position of the Parliament during the war which army comes to 
followed. Shortly afterwards a grant of tonnage and terms, 
poundage for two months was made, and terms were arranged with 
the Scottish army. 

During the spring and summer of 1641 Parliament continued its 
reforms. The Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission were 
abolished. Statutes were passed against the collection 
of ship-money, distraint of knighthood, and illegal of the Long 
customs duties, and at the same time the extent of ^^.riiament. 
the royal forests was fixed at what it had been before the late 
commission. 

All these measures were passed with practical unanimity, but 
there was not equal agreement in ecclesiastical matters. The 
Puritans were fast becoming hostile, not only to the Hostility of the 
doctrines of Laud, but to the Church of England itself. ^"^ESiish*^^ 
This hostility was much due to the perverse attitude church, 
of the bishops, who were blamed for being the cause of the Scot- 
tish war, and also for their subservience to the king. However, 
when attacks were made upon Episcopacy itself, and the advanced 
Puritans brought into the Commons a bill for its The Root and 
abolition, called the Root and Branch Bill, and when Branch biu. 
a bill for the exclusion of the bishops from Parliament was only 
thrown out by the Lords, moderate men who loved the Church, and 
who did not see whither the extreme men were going, began to hold 
back. Similarly in state affairs a party arose who thought reform had 
gone far enough, and who now wished to give the king a fair chance. 

In August, Charles went to Scotland, attended by a committee of the 
Commons, who were intended to keep a watch upon his charies goes to 
movements. In Scotland Charles took steps to secure Scotland. 



244 T^^ Stuarts. [i64i- 

evidence of collusion between the leaders of Parliament and the 
Scottish rebels. By this means he hoped to strike a fatal blow at 
Pym and his friends. In September, after a long session, Parliament 
separated for a recess, to meet in October. During the recess the 
party who thought that Charles had yielded enough, 

in diaries', sccms to have gathered strength. Dread of further 
ecclesiastical changes increased its ranks. It seemed 
certain that if Charles could make his cause one with that of the 
Church he would get a large follow^ng. 

Hardly had Parliament met again, when terrible news came from 
Ireland. The Irish, who had long smarted under the loss of their 

Eebemon in land and the degradation of their religion, took advan- 
ireiand. ^^gg q£ j^^ removal of Strafford and the divisions in 
England to rise in rebellion. A terrible massacre of the new land- 
owners and of the Protestants followed, and the news clearly 
showed that instant action was needed, if English rule were to be 
maintained at all. For this an army was necessary ; but to trust 
Charles with an army was a thing the Commons dared not do. 

The progress of the reaction frightened the Parliamentary 
leaders, and Pym, who had gained such authority over Parliament 

Tie Grand ^^^ ^^ Went by the name of King Pym, determined 
Remonstrance, to appeal to the nation. With this view he brought 
in the Grand Eemonstrance, which recounted, in a series of clauses, 
the arbitrary acts and mistakes of the king, both in Church and 
State, since the beginning of the reign. It was, in fact, a history 
of the reign of Charles as viewed by the Parliamentary leaders, 
and to this Pym asked the Commons to give their guarantee. The 
debate which followed brought out clearly the differences between 
the moderate upholders of the Church and the extreme Puritans, 
and, after an all-night sitting, the remonstrance was carried by 
only eleven votes. The majority at once clenched their victory by 
ordering the remonstrance to be printed. In fact, they appealed 
to the nation against the king. 

A day or two later Charles returned to London. He was well 
received by the citizens, and their cheers encouraged him to attack 
Charles returns ^^ Commons. He had now a party in the House 

toi^ondon. itself. Digby was his friend; and Falkland and 
Hyde, the leading opponents of the remonstrance, had joined him. 



1642.1 Charles I, 245 

He believed that a stout blow at the leaders would still win the 
day, and in this idea he was encouraged by his wife Henrietta 
Maria, Charles' plan was to charge his opponents 

•^ o rr The leaders 

With treason, and on January 3, 1642, the Attorney- charged with 
General charged Lord Kimbolton (afterwards Earl of *^®^s°^- 
Manchester) and five members of the Commons — Pym, Hampden, 
Holies, Hazelrig, and Strode — with high treason. This attack 
offended the House of Lords, of which Lord Kimbolton was a 
member, as well as the Commons. Both Houses took time to 
consider what should be done. This delay angered the king, and 
on January 5, attended by a band of armed men, he hurried 
down from Whitehall to Westminster, and demanded 

' Attempt to 

that the five members should be given up to him. seize the 
Fortunately word had been sent to Pym of what was ^^^ members, 
intended, and while Charles was marching from Whitehall to West- 
minster, the members fled by boat to the city. Finding the birds, 
as he said, flown, Charles returned to Whitehall. Had the 
members been there the attempt to seize them might easily have 
led to a conflict between the members and the soldiers, and, as it 
was, the appearance of the armed men at the door of the House, 
convinced Parliament that Charles meant to resort to force. From 
that moment war was all but inevitable,. 

Meanwhile the Londoners had determined to protect the members. 
To Charles' demand for their surrender, " Privilege of Parliament ! " 
was shouted in return. The Commons adjourned for charies leaves 
a week, when they meant to conduct the five members London, 
in triumph from Temple Bar to Westminster ; and Charles, to avoid 
seeing his own humiliation, left London never to return until just 
before his execution. 

Parliament then took in hand the duty of preparing for the Irish 
war, and it was determined to call out the militia, then the only 
regular military force. The ofiicers of the militia ^ 
had usually been appointed by the lords-lieutenant, for the war 
who in their turn were named by the king. An ^"^^^^^^^'i- 
act was passed giving to Parliament the appointment of the 
lords-heutenant, thus securing hold over the militia. This course 
was unconstitutional, for ParKament was taking upon itself the 
duties of the executive government; and as the king refused to 



246 The Stuarts. [1642. 

agree to tlie act, Parliament determined tliat it should take efiect 
without his consent. Their action, therefore, was both unconsti- 
tutional and illegal. 

Both parties now began to prepare for war. The king sent the 
queen to buy arms in Holland, and, taking his eldest son with 
Preparations ^^i™' moved northwards to York, where he was joined 
for civil war. j^y many noblemen and members of the Commons. 
At this moment the command of the fortified places was of the 
utmost importance. Of these the Tower, Portsmouth, and Hull, 
where the arms collected for the Scottish war had been placed, 
were of the three chief. Parliament took measures to secure these, 
and sent one of its members, Sir John Hotham, to command 
at Hull. The king himself demanded admission to Hull, which 
was refused, and war became inevitable. 

Both sides now raised forces, the Parliament employing their 
lords-lieutenant, the king issuing commissions of array. In July the 
Both sides raise Parliament named the Earl of Essex captain-general 
forces. of its forces. Essex was a son of Queen Elizabeth's 
old favourite. He was a fair soldier and an honest man, but he 
was too cautious to succeed well. To pay their troops the Commons 
made an order for levying tonnage and poundage. Charles was 
worse off, and had to rely upon the generosity of his followers. 

It is not easy to draw a geographical line between the two parties. 
In every county some were for the king and some for the Parlia- 
ment. High Churchmen and Eoman Catholics fol- 
parties were lowcd Charles. Puritans and Separatists followed the 

distributed, parliament. Koughly speaking, however, if we draw 
a hue from Hull to Gloucester, thence to Bristol, and from there to 
Weymouth, we shall find that the majority on the south and east 
were for the Parliament, on the north and west for the king. Two 
great exceptions there were. The University of Oxford supported 
the king ; the clothing towns of the West Eiding of Yorkshire went 
with the ParHament. These divisions are not unlike what we 
noticed in the wars of the Koses. The towns and the richer 
districts were with the Parliament, as they had been with the 
Yorkists ; the poorer followed the king. All ranks were divided ; 
noblemen and gentlemen fought on either side. The tradespeople 
as a rule were Parliamentarian, especially the Londoners. The 



1642.J 



Charles I. 



247 



poorer classes usually went with their landlords. Men of equal 
nobiKty and purity of motive were to be found on either side. 

In the autumn both parties had armies in the field. The king 
raised his standard at Nottingham, but fixed his head-quarters 
at Shrewsbury, where his followers from all parts 

. ^ Charles raises 

could jom him. His great object was to march on his standard at 
London, and bring the war to a close by a decisive ° *^^^ ^^' 
success. Essex' aim was to keep Charles at a distance from the 
capital, and for this end he placed garrisons in a series of towns 
from Northampton to Worcester to bar the king's path. Essex 
himself seized Worcester, where he had a smart combat with Prince 
Rupert, son of the Princess Elizabeth, who had come over to help 
his uncle. When the royal forces were collected at Moves towards 
Shrewsbury, Charles moved by forced marches to- liondon. 
wards London, and, passing between Essex' garrisons, gained a 
day's march on that general. 




OPERATIONS CONNECTED WITH EDGEHILL, OCTOBER 23, 1642. 

The roads to London from Shrewsbury and Worcester met 
at Banbury, near which the king turned aside and occupied a strong 
position on Edgehill, over which Essex would have to pass. 

The first battle of the civil war was fought here on October 23, 



248 The Stuarts. ri642- 

1642. The king lost the advantage of his position by marching 

Battle of down to fight Essex on the plain. On the Royalist 

Edgeiiiii. riglit Prince Rupert and his cavaliers carried all before 

them, but in the centre Essex' infantry held their own, and when 

Rupert returned he found that the day had gone against the king. 

Though Charles had failed to beat Essex, he was still nearer 
to London than Essex was, but the latter, rapidly marching to 
Northampton, outstripped Charles, who, on reaching the capital, 
found it unassailable, and was obliged to retire to Oxford. 

The next year, 1643, saw fighting going on in aU parts of 
England. In the south, Essex and the king faced one another on 
the road between Oxford and London ; in Cornwall and Devonshire, 
Sir William Waller for the Parliament, opposed Sir Ralph Hopton ; 
in the east, Cromwell and the Earl of Manchester were fighting the 
Royalists of the fens ; and in the north, Ferdinand Lord Fairfax and 
his son Sir Thomas led their tenants and the men of the clothing 
towns against the Earl of Newcastle, with whom was Henrietta 
Maria. The year opened disastrously for the Parhament. At 
Deatiiof Chalgrove Field, near Oxford, Hampden was killed 
Hampden. while trying to cut off a troop of Rupert's horse. 
At Roundaway Down, near Devizes, Sir William Waller was utterly 
defeated, and Prince Rupert stormed the defences of Bristol, and the 
town was surrendered. Rupert's success was, however, dearly 
purchased by the loss of many officers, and of five hundred " in- 
comparable foot," while the pillage to which the Parliamentarians 
of the place were subjected made resistance elsewhere more 
desperate. In the north, the Fairfaxes were beaten at Atherton 
Moor, now spelt Adwalton, and forced to take refuge in Hull. 
Only in the east did the Parliamentarians hold their own. 

Encouraged by his success, Charles wished Newcastle to join with 

him in a decisive march on London. Newcastle, however, refused, 

Siege of ^nd the king was obliged to give up his plan and 

Gloucester, ^q besiege Gloucester, which, now that Bristol had 

fallen, was the only stronghold of the Parliament in the Severn 

Essex raises Valley. Gloucester, however, fearful of the fate of 

the siege. Bristol, made a stout resistance, and Essex, marching 

with the London train-bands, raised the siege. At Newbury, on the 

Kennet, the king tried to bar Essex' return to London ; but the attempt 



1644.] Charles I. 



249 



failed and Falkland was killed. Charles then retreated to Oxford, 
and Essex passed on to London. Meanwhile Cromwell pj^st battle of 
had defeated the Royahst forces at Gainsborough and Newbury. 
Winceby, and Newcastle himself had been forced to raise the siege 
of Hull. The year, therefore, though checkered, closed well for the 
Parliament. 

In the winter both parties tried to secure allies. Parliament, under 
the guidance of Pym, signed with the Scots the Solemn League and 
Covenant, and an army of twenty-one thousand men 

-, 1 -. n r- -1 . 1 -r. T , The Solemn 

crossed the border to light in the Parliament s pay. League and 
This was Pym's last act, for he died at the end Covenant, 
of the year, and it marks the highest power to which the Presby- 
terians attained. On his side, the king made a truce charies ames 
with the Irish rebels, and a contingent from his Irish "^^^^ *^® insh. 
army landed in Wales. At the same time Charles, by the advice 
of Hyde, called a Parliament at Oxford. 

The year 1644 opened well for the Parliament. In January, Sir 
Thomas Fairfax, defeated the Irish contingent at Nantwich, and 
then turning north routed, in April, an outpost which Battle of 
Newcastle had placed at Selby, on the Ouse, for the Nantwicii. 
defence of York. The defeat at Selby forced Newcastle to retreat 
before the Scottish army to York, where he was besieged by the 
united forces of the Scots, the Fairfaxes, and the army of the 
eastern counties under Lord Manchester and Cromwell. In 
the south, Essex and Waller attempted to hem 

Siege of York. 

the king into Oxford with a view to besieging the 
town ; but Charles cleverly passed between the two armies, and 
then returning, fought them in detail. Waller was routed at 
Cropredy Bridge, near Banbury, and then the Royalists Battle of Crop- 
forced Essex to retreat before them into Cornwall, redy Bridge, 
where his army surrendered at Lostwithiel, and Essex himself 
escaped by sea to London. 

This great success was, however, balanced by a still greater 
disaster in the north. After leaving Oxford, Charles had ordered 
Prince Ptupert to raise the siege of York. The prince made his way 
by Cheshire and Lancashire to Yorkshire, and, after crossing the 
Aire at Skipton, and the Wharfe at Otley, reached Knaresborough, 
on the Nidd. 



250 



The Stuarts. 



[1644- 



When news of his arrival reached the allies, they raised the siege 
of York and drew up to meet him on Marston Moor, opposite the 
place where the usual road from Knaresborough to York crosses the 
Nidd at Skip Bridge. Rupert, however, eluded them by marching 
north, and, crossing the Ure and the Swale above their junction, came 
down the left bank of the Ouse and relieved York. Upon this the 
Parhamentarians retreated south, in order to hold the line of the 
Wharfe against Rupert's return. But the RoyaHsts marched out 




OPEKATIONS OF MARSTON MOOK, JULY 2, 1644. 



of York against them, and the Parliamentarians then halted and 
drew up on the rising ground on the south side of the moor. 
However, as the Royalists did not attack them, they took the 
offensive. Rupert's Cavaliers were routed at the first charge, and 
though Newcastle's foot made a stout resistance, the Royalist forces 
Battle of "v^^ere completely overthrown. The battle of Marston 
Marston Moor, j^^qj, utterly ruined the king's cause in the north, 
and Newcastle himself fled to the Continent. Rupert with difficulty 
rejoined the king. After this victory, Manchester and Cromwell, 
leaving Fairfax and the Scots to besiege Pontefract, marched south, 
and joined Essex in an attempt to cut off the king's return from 



1046.] Charles L 251 

Cornwall to Oxford. The two armies met at Newbury, and the 
kmg was worsted ; but Manchester's hesitation prevented Cromwell 
from charging the retreating Royalists with his Ironsides, so the king 
was able to regain Oxford. 

This failure brought to a head the discontent of the more 
energetic members of the Parliamentary party. These for the most 
part were Independents in religion, while the moderate members 
were Presbyterians. The leaders of the moderates were Essex, 
Manchester, and Waller ; Cromwell led the Inde- j^ise of 
pendents. This great man had rapidly been coming Cromwell, 
to the front. He had been the first to see that the feelings of 
loyalty and honour which inspired the Cavaliers could only be met 
by religious enthusiasm. At first the ParHamentary armies were 
strong in infantry but weak in cavalry. Cromwell, however, found 
among the farmers' sons of the eastern counties as good riders as 
the gentry, and men inspired with the utmost zeal for the cause 
of their religion. From them he formed his Ironsides, 
and drilled them into one of the finest bodies of horse ® ^°^^^ ®^' 
the world had then seen. These men carried the day at Marston 
Moor, and only Manchester's hesitation hindered them from crushing 
the royal forces at Newbury. The Independents now came forward, 
and declared that the army must be remodelled, and that the old 
generals must retire. As these happened to be members of Parlia- 
ment, a Self-denying Ordinance was passed, by which r^-^^ Seif-deny- 
all members were deprived of their commands. Thus "^s- ordinance. 
Essex, Manchester, and Waller were removed; but Cromwell's 
services were so valuable that they were retained by a special Act - 
of Parliament, renewed from time to time. 

During the winter negotiations with the king had been going on 
at Uxbridge; but Charles, who was not yet dis- 

, ^ , . , , T T Charles refuses 

couraged, reiused to come to terms. In January, to come to 
1645, by a monstrous act of injustice. Archbishop terms. 
Laud, who was innocent of any crime, was attainted .^chbishop' 
and executed. Laud. 

By the summer the new model army, consisting of fourteen 
thousand foot and seven thousand horse, was ready. Battle of 
and was put under the command of Sir Thomas Fair- Naseby. 
fax. Fairfax and Cromwell met the king at Naseby, near Leicester, 



'252 The Stuarts, ti646- 

June 14tli, and totally routed him. The king's "baggage was taken, 
and liis letters to the queen and to the Irish rebels, which showed 
that while negotiating with the Parliament he had really no in- 
tention of coming to terms, were published. 

The king's hopes now rested upon the Marquess of Montrose. That 
nobleman had eagerly espoused the king's cause, and at Tippermuir, 
Inverlochy, and Kilsyth he had beaten the Covenanters under the 
Marquess of Argyll. Charles hoped that he would be able to in- 

Batties of vade England ; but three months after the battle of 
""^^^and"^^ Naseby Montrose was defeated at Philiphaugh, and 
RowtonHeatii. ten days later Charles, from the walls of Chester, saw 
his last army defeated at Eowton Heath. All the next winter 
Charles tiirows Charles wandered about the country, and at last, 
himself on the in May, 1646, threw himself upon the protection 

protection of ^,10.., i , 

the Scottish 01 the bcottish army who were then encamped at 
^^^^- Newark. 

Taking the king with them, the Scots retreated to Newcastle. 
There negotiations with Parliament were again opened ; but the 

The Scotch king, though he would have given up the command 
'^^^MngTo*^^® of the militia, refused to establish Presbyterianism, 

ParUament. and they were broken off. Parliament then paid the 
Scots the first instalment of the £400,000 due for their expenses, 
and immediately afterwards the Scots handed over the king to the 
commissioners of the Parliament. Charles was treated with respect, 
and lodged at Holmby House, in Northamptonshire. 

Meanwhile difficulties had arisen between the Parliament and the 
army. Since 1643 an assembly for the regulation of religion had 

Difficulties been sitting at Westminster. It had substituted 

paJiiTmSit Presbyterianism for Episcopacy as the established re- 
and the army, ligion of England, and had replaced the Prayer-book 
by a service book called the Directory. These changes had been 
confirmed by Parliament. This settlement of the religious question 
was quite contrary to the views of the army, which, as we saw, 
was mostly composed of Independents ; and the Presbyterians, who 
formed a majority in Parliament, now tried to get rid of the army. 
Accordingly they passed four ordinances, to reduce its numbers, to 
deprive members of Parliament of their commands, to make all 
officers take the Covenant, and to pay the soldiers only one-sixth of 



1648.] Charles /. 253 

what was due to tliem. The army naturally objected, and when 
commissioners from the Parliament came down to 

T , , . , The army 

disband some regiments and to send others to Ireland, secures the 
the soldiers refused to obey, appointed a council of ^^^ ^ person, 
officers, and by a clever move got possession of the king's person. 
In the dead of night Cornet Joyce and a body of horse arrived at 
Holmby, and compelled Charles to go with them to Newmarket. 
There they demanded the expulsion of eleven of 
the Presbyterian members, and to enforce their de- to Hampton 
mands marched on London, and placed the king at Court. 
Hampton Court. While this was going on they offered to make 
terms with the king, on the basis of restoring Episco- 
pacy, with toleration for other sects. These terms come to terms 
were more favourable to the king than those offered ^^^^ charies. 
by the Parliament ; but the king, hoping that the dissensions between 
the army and Parliament might be turned to still 
better account, refused them, and escaped to the to the^isie^of 
Isle of Wight, whence he kept up a correspondence wig-ht. 
with all parties. 

As Charles expected, a second civil war began in 1648. EoA^alist 
insurrections broke out in Kent and Wales, while the Duke of 
Hamilton entered England with an army composed -j^^ ,. . 
of moderate Presbyterians. Against this new danger i^isurrections. 
the army acted with the greatest energy. Fairfax put down the 
Eoyalists at Maidstone and took Colchester by siege. satti 
Cromwell took Pembroke Castle, and then marching Preston, 
northward, cut Hamilton's army in two at Preston, on the Kibble, 
and completed its destruction at Wigan and Warrington. 

Meanwhile, in the absence of the army, Charles had made terms 
with the Parliament, and agreed at Newport to establish Presby- 
terianism for three j^ears. But the army came back 

p . . , 1 " 1 1 Charles comes 

from vVarnngton m no humour to brook such an to terms with 
arrangement, and Colonel Pride at once marched *^® Parliament. 

. " ^ ' , - n 1 1 -n. 1 . ^^^ army puts 

down to the house and expeiled the Presbyterian an end to the 
members. After this Parliament had not the slightest ^^^^^^^^^^t- 
claim to legally represent the nation; however, the Independent 
minority of fifty-three members, who were often called the Eump, 
in obedience to the wishes of the army, voted to bring the king to 



254 The Stuarts. [i649. 

trial before a special or high court of justice. This proposition was 
rejected by the Lords, upon which the Commons declared their 

King brought conscnt to be unnecessary. The king was then 

to trial. brought to London, and arraigned before a so-called 

court of justice, composed of some of the Independent leaders. He 

refused to acknowledge its authority, and the court voted him to be 

Execution of ^^"^^ ^f high treason. A few days after, on January 
Charles I. 30, 1649, Charles was beheaded on a scaffold placed 
before the windows of the Palace of Whitehall. 

The chief cause of Charles's defeat was the insolence and insubor- 
dination of his own officers, which prevented him from gaining 
decisive success at the outset. This gave the Parliamentarians time 
to organize their forces, and to oppose drilled soldiers to the brave 
but ill-disciplined Cavaliers. Throughout the war the Royalist 
horsemen could never be mustered for a second charge, while the 
Parliamentarian cavalry, both at Marston Moor and Naseby, showed 
how well they could rally. The Royalist historian. Clarendon, fills 
his pages with pictures of the wi'ongheadedness and selfishness 
which again and again ruined the king's plans; and shows that 
Charles' armies suffered defeat from the same causes which had 
ruined the French feudal levies at Crdcy and Agincourt. 



CHAPTER III. 
The Commonwealth and Peotectorate, 1649-1660 (11 years). 

Chief Characters of the Commonwealth. — Oliver Cromwell ; Fairfax ; John 
Milton ; Sir Henry Vane ; Henry Cromwell ; Ireton ; Lambert ; Fleet- 
wood ; Blake ; Penn ; Kichard Cromwell ; and Monk. 

Whatevee may be thought of the right or wrong of putting 
Charles to death, there is httle doubt that it was a political mistake. 
Charles himself was discredited, but his death rallied 
the Royahsts round the Prince of Wales, against whom execution 
no harm was known, and made it certain that the a mistake, 
new government would have to rest upon the terror inspired by 
the army. The expulsion of the Presbyterians in 1648 had thrown 
them into opposition, so that the party now in power consisted only 
of the Independents and sectaries supported by Cromwell's soldiers. 

Hardly was Charles dead when the publication of "Eikon Basilike " 
(the Royal Likeness), which professed to have been written by 
Charles himself, and gave an account of his life and "Eikon 
meditations in prison, produced such a reaction in his Basilike." 
favour that the poet Milton was engaged to answer it. 

Directly after the execution the Commons voted that the House 
of Lords "is useless, dangerous, and ought to be abolished." They 
then resolved that government by a king or single person "is un- 
necessary, burdensome, dangerous, and ought to be abolished." 
A Council of State was then appointed to carry on council of state 
the government, and an act passed, declaring the appointed, 
people of England to be a commonwealth and free state. About 
the same time some of the Royalist leaders were brought to trial, and 
Hamilton, who had led the Scottish invasion, was executed with 
Holland and Capel, the leaders of the Royahst rising in 1648. 

Meanwhile the government found itself surrounded with difficulties. 



256 The Commonwealth, [I649- 

In England a dangerous mutiny broke out in the army. In Ireland 

the rebels and Royalists, who were now making 
The Irish war. i, j i j • ^i td r 

common cause, had hemmed m the rarliamen- 

tarians at Dublin. In Scotland the Covenanters were levying 

troops and corresponding with the Prince of Wales. The council 

acted with great energy. The mutineers were sternly put down ; 

Cromwell himself was despatched to Ireland. Before his arrival, 

Battle of however, General Jones had beaten the Royalist 

Rathmines. Qrmond at Rathmines, near Dublin. Upon that, the 

Royalists, quitting the open country, were preparing to protract the 

war by forcing the English to undertake a number of sieges. 

Drog-heda Cromwell at once marched on Drogheda and sternly 

stormed. ordered it to surrender. On a refusal, he stormed 
the town and put the garrison to the sword. This terrible act 
probably saved bloodshed in the long run ; for Wexford stood a siege, 
and, the example being repeated, most other towns surrendered at 
the first summons. 

In Scotland the prince had been doubtful whether the Covenan- 
ters under Argyll, or the old Royalist leader Montrose, would best 
The Scottish serve him. Montrose was allowed to make an expedi- 
^^^- tion and attempt to raise the clans, but, on his defeat 

at Corbiesdale, Charles meanly suffered him to be tried and executed 
by the Covenanters without a protest. As the council expected 
the Scots to invade England, they determined to take the first step ; 
and, as Fairfax refused to command against Covenanters, Cromwell 
was ordered to invade Scotland. With a large army supported 
by a fleet, Cromwell took the road from Berwick to Edinburgh. He 
found the Scots strongly posted on Salisbury Crags, a part of Arthur's 
Seat. As their position was impregnable, Cromwell was obliged to 
retreat when his provisions were exhausted. As he retired the Scots 
pursued, keeping along the ridge of the Lammermuir Hills which 
here run parallel to the Forth, while Cromwell marched on the 

Battle of level ground by the shore. On reaching Dunbar, 
Dimbar. which lies at the end of a small promontory, the 
Scots placed themselves so as to command the roads from Dunbar 
to Berwick and Edinburgh. Their position was so strong that Crom- 
well despaired of success. He had already sent his heavy guns and 
sick on board the fleet, and was preparing to follow with his whole 



less.] The Co??imonwealth. 257 

army, when tlie Scots, fearful that their prey would escape, and 
urged on by their preachers, began to come down into the plain. 
Instantly Cromwell saAV his advantage ; he dashed his troops upon 
the descendiag Scots, threw their van into confusion, and hurling 
it back on the main body, completed the discomfiture of their 
whole army. 

From Dunbar Cromwell marched on Edinburgh, which opened its 
gates, while the Scots retreated to a strong position near {Stirling. 
There Cromwell, unable to bring the Scots to an scots marcii on 
engagement, crossed the Forth, in order to take liondon. 
them in the rear. This manoeuvre left the road to England open, 
and Charles, who had now joined the Scots, boldly abandoning 
Scotland, marched with his whole army for London. Cromwell 
who was quite taken by surprise, sent Lambert by forced marches 
to try and check the Eoyalist advance. Lambert failed to stop 
Charles, but he turned him, and the Royalists, instead of marching 
straight to London, took the road to Worcester. This mistake gave 
Cromwell time to come up, and with an over- Battle of 
whelming force he crushed the Eoyalist army at "W'orcester. 
Worcester. Few of Charles' men escaped, but the prince himself 
contrived to make his way through Cromwell's line, and after many 
hair-breadth adventures found a passage to France. 

Next year war began with the Dutch. For many years the 
Dutch had been our rivals in the Colonies, and the two nations 
were bitterly jealous of each other's success in trade. ^j^q Dutch 
The Dutch had done a large business in carrying the ■"^^^• 

goods of other countries to England, where they sold them at a 
profit; but Parliament passed the ]Sravio;ation Act, which forbade 
the importation of goods into England except in English ships, or 
in the ships of the country producing them. This law was naturally 
resented by the Dutch, and war broke out. Owing to the care which 
Charles had taken of it, the navy was in good condition, and after 
an indecisive battle in May, 1652, the Dutch were Defeat of the 
defeated in September in a battle off the coast of ^^*ch. 

Defeat of 

Kent. Their discomfiture, however, only spurred the Biake. 
Dutch on to greater efforts, and in November their fleet, under Yan 
Tromp, beat Blake, the English admiral, off the Ness. 

After the battle of Worcester the army became much dis- 

s 



258 The Commonwealth. . [less- 

satisfied with the conduct of Parliament. They thought that the 

present House ought to be dissolved, and its place 

satisfied with taken by one more in harmony with their views. 

Parliament, however, wished to put off the dissolution 

as long as possible, and fixed November 3, 1654, as its date. This 

did not at all meet the views of the army, and when a bill was 

brought into Parliament by which all the members were to keep their 

seats without re-election, and also to have a right of veto on newly 

elected members, Cromwell in 1653 went down to 

Crom'weU 

expels tiie the House and expelled the members. This done, 

mem ers. Cromwell and the officers appointed a new council 
of state, which, in place of a Parliament, chose an assembly of one 
hundred and forty nominees from names sent in by the various Inde- 

Barebones pendent ministers. This assembly is often called Bare- 
ParUament. ■^ones' Parliament, from the name of one of the mem- 
bers for the city of London. Its members were animated by the 
best intentions, but they had no knowledge of statesmanship. For 
instance, they named a committee to reform the law which did not 
contain a single lawyer. Many of their reforms were good, but 
many were too violent to suit Cromwell ; the army was dissatisfied, 
and the members resigned their power into Cromwell's hands. 

Upon this, in December, 1653, the council of officers by the 

Instrument of Government, made Cromwell Lord Protector, with 

a council of twenty-one persons. The Protector 

CromweUbe- i i i i i , i 

comes Lord was to DC general by land and sea ; but he was to 
Protector. (decide all questions of peace and war by the aid of 
the council. Parliament was to be summoned at least once every 
three years, and was not to sit for less than five months. All laws 
were to be made by it, but the Protector might delay any law 
coming into force for twenty-one days. The first Parliament was 
to meet in September, 1654, so that till it met Cromwell and the 
council had sole power. 

In 1645 the use of the Prayer-book had been forbidden by Act 

of Parliament, and Presbyterianism established by law for three 

years. Presbyterianism had, however, never gained 

policy of any real hold in England, except in London, Lan- 

cromweu. casliire, and some of the large towns, as Bristol and 

Hull ; and since 1648, when the army gained the upper hand, no 



1654.] The Commonwealth. 259 

attempt had been made to enforce it, and the pari&h churches had 
been occupied by men of all denominations, who used any form of 
service they liked, so long as it was not the Prayer-book of the Church 
of England. Many of these men were earnest and pious, others were 
wholly unsuitable, and Cromwell, therefore, despatched a commission 
to inquire into the characters of all against whom complaint was 
made. As immorality, frivolity, the use of the Common Prayer-book, 
and loyalty to the Stuarts, were equally regarded by the commis- 
sioners as " scandalous," much injustice was done among some good. 
The places of the ejected ministers were filled up by the ordinary 
patrons of livings, but all persons nominated had to pass a board of 
triers, consisting of Presbyterians, Independents, and Baptists, who 
were naturally somewhat prejudiced against the Eoyalist clergy, 
many of whom were rejected. In 1655 it was made penal for any 
dispossessed minister to hold the office of private chaplain, to preach, 
to administer the sacraments, to use the Prayer-book, or to teach 
iu a public or private school. 

The reform of the law was a favourite subject with the army, 
and Cromwell appointed a commission to take the matter in hand. 
He also prepared for a reform of the Court of cromweii's 
Chancery, by arranging that suits in that court should policy, 
be tried in the other law courts until all arrears were cleared 
off. An advantageous peace was concluded with Holland. 
Law and order were enforced in Ireland and Scotland with a 
stern hand. In Ireland, Henry Cromwell, second son of the 
Protector, ruled from 1654 to 1659. Under him the property of 
the Irish Catholics and Royalists was forfeited, and divided among 
those who had lent money for the war and the Cromwelhan 
soldiery. The new settlers, like the Ulstermen, were vigorous 
improvers of the country, but the confiscation of the lands of the 
Irish was as unjust then as it had been in 1608. Scotland 
was under the rule of George Monk, who reduced the High- 
lands to order. Presbyterianism ceased to be established, but 
there was no religious persecution. The union with England did 
much good to Scottish trade, and Cromwell's rule was a time of 
great peace and prosperity for that country. At home and abroad 
Cromwell showed himself a vigorous and successful administrator. 
The elevation of the Protector was the signal for plots against his 



2 6p The Commonwealth. [I654- 

life ; but the first of these, contrived by Gerard and Vowell, was 
detected, and the plotters executed. 

On September 3, 1654, the first Protectorate Parliament met. A 
great many members had been taken away from small or decayed 
towns and given to large unrepresented towns, while 
Protectorate the counties received members in proportion to their 
amen . population. Four hundred members sat for England, 
thirty for Scotland, and thirty for Ireland, so that the Parliament 
represented the whole of the British Isles, and not England and 
Wales only, as previous Parliaments had done. When it met, 
the extreme Eepublicans, headed by Sir Henry Vane, who disliked 
the Protectorate, insisted upon debating the advisability of govern- 
ment by a single person. This was to strike at the very root of 
the present settlement, and Cromwell found it necessary to exact a 
pledge from the members that they would not attempt to alter the 
form of government, and excluded about a hundred members who 
refused to give it. At length, after a stormy session, Parliament 
was dissolved in January, 1655. Its dissensions encouraged the 
Koyahsts, and a number of them, under Penruddock and Wag- 
„ ., ^ staff seized the iudges who had come to hold the 

Failure of / Jo 

Penruddock's assizes at Salisbury, and attempted to raise the 
rising-. countr3^ The movement, however, was a complete 
failure, and it was clear that so long as the army was united 
casual insurrections had no chance of success. The plot, however, 
gave Cromwell an excuse for dividing England into eleven military 
districts, and placing each of them under a major-general, who paid 
himself and his men out of the estates of the Koyalists, and ruled 
with almost despotic power. 

In foreign affairs Cromwell went back to the policy of Queen 
Elizabeth. The Stuart friendship with Spain had always been un- 
cromweu popular ; Cromwell, therefore, made war with Spain, in 
France^ against ^-lliance with France, as Elizabeth had done. By this 
Spain. time the chief E7Tropean nations had acquired con- 
siderable colonies in the New World. Cromwell was the first to 
■We begin to realize that, as England was a naval power, the best 
^'^enemies^ policy for her was to attack the colonies of her 
colonies, opponents, and this plan was steadily followed 
afterwards. In 1655 Penn and Venables made an expedition to 



1658.] The Commonivealth. 261 

the West Indies, and though they failed to take San Domingo, 
they captured Jamaica, which the Enghsh hold at the capture of 
present day. The French were glad enough to join Jamaica, 
with us against Spain, and, to please Cromwell, ordered Charles 
to quit their territory. In 1658 an army of English and French 
troops beat the Spaniards in the battle of the Dunes, or sand-hills, 
on the Netherland coast, and captured Dunkirk, Defeat of the 
which was handed over to England iust a hundred ^pamards. 

° "J Capture of 

years after the loss of Calais. Cromwell made it DunMrk. 
his aim to make England feared abroad, and on his remonstrance 
the Duke of Savoy, in 1656, gave up persecuting the Protestant 
Vaudois, whose cause had been pleaded by Milton. 

In 1656 Cromwell again called a Parliament, as he did not wish to 
be an arbitrary ruler. To avoid the difficulties of the last Parlia- 
ment, above ninety Republicans and Presbyterians 
were not allowed to take their seats. The new Par- second 
liament wished Cromwell to take the title as well as ^^^^^^^e^*- 
the powers of king, and to call a house of lords : this would have 
had the advantage of securing Cromwell's officials from prosecutions 
for treason in event of a restoration, because they would have come 
under the de facto statute of Henry VII., according to which no 
one could be prosecuted for treason for holding office under a king 
who was actually reigning. The name of king, however, was still 
odious to the army, without whose support Cromwell could not hope 
to keep his place. He was, therefore, obliged to 
decline the title of king, but accepted the Humble declines the 
Petition and Advice, by which the office of Protector ^'^^^ °^ ^''^• 
was made hereditary ; and the old constitution of England, with the 
changes introduced by the Long Parliament before the war, was 
practically restored. All forms of faith except Roman Catholicism 
and Socinianism were to be tolerated, but no denomination was 
established as the State Church. At the beginning of 1658 the re- 
organized Parliament met, but Cromwell's enemies in the Commons 
made agreement with the lords impossible, and it was soon dissolved. 

After this Cromwell's health grew rapidly worse, and in 1658, worn 
out by anxiety, he died. Cromwell was a really great Death of 
man ; his military genius secured his pre-eminence in cromweii. 
a time of war. When he had become the leader of the country, he 



262 The Commonwealth. [lesa- 

showed his sagacity and practical wisdom by the moderation of his 
acts ; but he failed to make his rule permanent, because an attempt 
to govern the majority of a nation by a minority supported by an 
armed force, can in the nature of things only be transitory, and there 
is little doubt that a freely elected Parliament, any time after th.^ 
beginning of the war, would have given a majority, possibly to the 
Royalists, certainly to the Royalists and Presbyterians combined. 

On Cromwell's death the council declared his eldest son, Richard, 

Protector. It was unfortunate that the second son, Henry, who was 

a capable soldier and experienced statesman, could 

Ricliard Crom- ^ ^ ' 

weu becomes not have Succeeded ; for Richard, though a kindly 

Protector. ,t .,t , , t t 

gentleman, was neither a statesman nor a soldier, 
and had not the rehgious character which was necessary to win the 
respect of the zealots. His accession, however, passed off without 
disturbance ; but when his first Parliament met, the old dissensions 
broke out, and Richard found that he must either trust to the support 
of the army or that of Parliament. He preferred the army, and 
Parliament Parliament was dissolved. The army then took 
dissolved. matters into their own hands, and recalled the 
remains of the Long Parliament, generally called the Rump ; and 
Richard, finding himself neglected, left Whitehall and retired to 
private life. These events naturallj^ encouraged insurrection, and 
a rising broke out in Cheshire, under Booth, which was promptly 
put down by Lambert. On Lambert's return to London he was 
dismissed by the Parliament, so the next day he marched on West- 
minster, and for the second time the army expelled the Rump. 

The army was now supreme, but its power was threatened by 

the march from Scotland of General Monk, Cromwell's officer in 

MoiLk;, joined *^^* country. Monk was a cautious man and kept 

by Lord his own counsel, but it was thought that he was 

marches on opposed to the leaders of the English army. Ac- 

London. cordiiigly Lambert marched north to fight him ; but 

Lord Fairfax, who since the Protectorate had retired from public 

End of the ^^^®' "^^stered the Yorkshire militia and threatened 

Rump to join Monk. Upon this Lambert's troops dispersed, 

and Monk, marching without opposition to London, 

declared for a free Parliament. He then forced the Rump, which 

had resumed it? sittings on Lambert's departure, to dissolve itself 



1660.] The Commonwealth, 263 

in accordance with the act of 1641 ; and called a new Parliament, 
or Convention (because it was not summoned by a king), to meet 
in April. 

The Convention was elected, not according to Cromwell's plan, 
but by the old boroughs. It was composed almost entirely of 
Royahsts and Presbyterians, who had hitherto been ^^^ 

kept in subiection by the army, of whose rule all convention 
England, with the exception of a few fanatics, was 
heartily tired. With one voice the Convention determined to 
recall Charles, who was in no way responsible for the ill deeds 
of his father. Charles was only too glad to respond, charies 
and amidst the enthusiasm of the whole nation he recaUed. 
landed at Dover, and entered London on his birthday, May 29, 1660. 



CHIEF BATTLES AND SIEGES OF THE CIVIL WAR. 

Battle of Edgehill October, 1642 

„ Chalgrove Field June, 1643 

,, Atherton Moor June, 

,, Eoundaway Down July, 

„ Gainsborough July, 

Siege of Gloucester August 10— September 5, 

First battle of Newbury September 20, 

Battle of Winceby October, 

,, Nantwich January, 1644 

„ Selby April, 

„ Cropredy Bridge ... June 29, 

„ Marston Moor July 2, 

Surrender at Lostwithiel September, 

Second battle of Newbury October, 

Battle of Naseby June, 1645 

Battles of Tippermuir, Inverlochy, Kilsyth, and Philiphaugh 

Battle of Rowton Heath September, 

„ Preston 1648 

,, Eathmines \^^^ 

Siege of Drogheda 

Battle of Dunbar September 3, 1650 

„ Worcester September 3, 1651 



CHAPTER IT. 

Charles II., 1660-1685 (25 years). 
Born 1630; married, 1662, Katharine of Portugal. 

Chief Characters of the Reign.— 'Edwaxdi Hyde, Earl of Clarendon ; the Duke 
of Buckingham ; Clifford ; Antony Ashley Cooper, created Earl of 
Shaftesbury ; Arlington ; Lauderdale ; Sir Thomas Osborne, created 
Earl of Danby ; the Duke of Monmouth ; James, Duke of York ; Titus 
Gates ; William, Lord Eussell ; Algernon Sidney. 

Chief Contemporary Sovereigns. 
France. Holland, 

Louis XIV., William of Orange, Stadtholder, 

1643-1715. 1672-1702. 

Charles II. became king at the age of thirty. He had lived 

abroad since he had been twenty-oae, sometimes in France, sometimes 

Character of ^^ Holland. He was a man of great natural sagacity, 

Charles II. ^^.-ndi his checkered career had given him considerable 
experience of men and things. More able than his father, he had 
more knowledge of the world than his grandfather, and he brought 
back with him one fixed determination, never to set out on his 
travels again. At the same time, he was determined to secure as 
much power as circumstances would permit, and his easy-going 
manner, which blinded observers to his real character, enabled him 
to gain a large measure of success. At his accession his confidence 
was given to Clarendon, the Edward Hyde of the Long Parliament, 
who, after a steady adherence to the royal family in its misfortunes, 
now returned as Lord Chancellor. 

The first step of the Convention was to pass an Act of 
^ ^^^ Indemnity and Oblivion for offences committed 

Indemnity during the civil wars and the Commonwealth. From 

and Oblivion. ., . . , ,, ^ ^ ^ ■, 

its provisions, however, those persons who had been 



I 



1661.] Charles II, 265 

especially Gonnected with, tke trial and execution of Charles 
were excepted. Of these many were dead, but of those who were 
captured ten suffered death, and others were imprisoned. A year 
later Gleneral Lambert and Sir Henry Vane were tried for treason. 
Neither of them were regicides, and they pleaded that what they had 
done was protected by the de facto statute of Henry VII., which,, 
under the actual title of king, might be held to include a settled 
government. The judges, however, decided against them, and 
Lambert was imprisoned and Vane executed. 

Parliament next abolished the practice of holding land on 
military tenure, which involved the payment of feudal dues. These 
dues had long been a source of complaint, for the Feudalism 
objects of feudalism had disappeared ; but it was not aboushed. 
fair to commute them for an excise on liquors, which fell, not upon 
those who had formerly paid the dues, but upon the general body of 
the nation. At the same time, the right of purveyance, by which 
the "king had the privilege of buying all goods he wanted at market 
price, and of pressing into his service carriages and carts, was 
abandoned. 

The question of defence was next considered by Parliament. 
The command of the militia and the fortresses was restored to the 
king, and it was also determined to keep up a force r^e standing 
of two regiments, and several garrisons, amounting in army, 
all to five thousand men. There is a certain point in the develop- 
ment of a country at which a standing army of professional soldiers 
becomes necessary. A highly civilized nation will not endure to be 
called upon to leave its business and take service in the field, while 
at the same time the progress in the art of war makes it needful for 
the soldier to have a more regular training than he can get while 
following any other pursuit. England's insular position, however, 
enabled us to do without a standing army long after the continental 
nations had adopted them. The Convention Parliament was dis- 
solved in 1661, and the same year a new Parliament met. The 
new members were almost entirely Eoyalists, and so eager were 
they for vengeance, that the government had great difficulty in 
inducing them to confirm the acts of the Convention. 

At the Kestoration the Church of England resumed its old 
position as the Established Church ; but it might have been ex- 



2 66 The Stuarts. rieei- 

pected that Charles would have done something to improve the 
Re-estabUsh- position of the Presbyterians, to whose alliance with 
"chifrch.*of^ the Royalists he owed so much. A conference, 
England. indeed, was held at the Savoy Palace between the 
bishops and the Presbyterian ministers, but neither party was 
really anxious for union, and the meeting came to nothing. In 
Charles' first Parliament, Churchmen were in a great majority, and 
their first act was to reinstate the Church in the position she had 
held before the rebellion. By the Act of Uniformity, passed in 
1662, all holders of benefices were required to be ordained by a 
bishop, to use only the Book of Common Prayer, of which a re^ased 
version was published the same j'^ear, and to take an oath that re- 
sistance to the king was unlawful. As a number of ministers who 
had been appointed to livings since the disestablishment of the 
Church refused to comply with these conditions, they were forced 
to vacate their livings on St. Bartholomew's Day, 1662. As to the 
number and qualifications of these men. Churchmen and Noncon- 
formists are hopelessly at variance ; but it is probable that the 
number did not fall short of fifteen hundred, and it certainly 
included many men eminent for piety and learning. 

The restoration of the Church livings to members of the Church 
was not unfair, but the hardships of the expelled ministers were 
made greater by the day chosen for their expulsion falling just 
before they received their tithes, so that they lost a year's income 
as well; while, not content with re-establishing the Church in 
^ possession of its livings, Parliament persecuted its 

Persecution of ^ ° ' ri i • • 

theNoncon- fallen opponents. Many of the expelled ministers, 
formis s. j^^^ ^g ^^ Royalists had done under the Common- 
wealth, continued to call their followers together in some barn or 
large room ; so, in 1664, Parliament imitated the bad example of 
Cromwell by passing the Conventicle Act, which forbade all 
assemblies for worship other than those of the Church, and in 
1665 it revived another of Cromwell's regulations, by passing the 
Five Mile Act, which forbade expelled ministers, unless they had 
subscribed to the Act of Uniformity, to get their Hving by teaching 
in any public or private school, or to settle within five miles of 
any corporate town. The political strength of the Nonconformists, 
of whom the chief bodies were the Presbyterians, the Independents, 



1667.] Charles II. 267 

the Baptists, and the Quakers, lay in the corporations of small 
towns ; and, to deprive them of this, the Corporation Act was passed, 
in 1661, ordering all holders of municipal office to renounce the 
Covenant, and take the Sacrament according to the forms of the 
Church of England. The Corporation Act, Uniformity Act, Con- 
venticle Act, and Five Mile Act are often called the Clarendon 
Code ; and a comparison of these with the legislation of the Com- 
monwealth shows that, in the seventeenth century, neither the 
Church nor her opponents had grasped the idea of religious toleration. 
In foreign politics Clarendon continued the policy of hostility to 
Spain and friendship to France. In accordance with it, Charles in 
1661 married Katharine of Portugal, which country 

Charles* 

had in 1640 revolted from Spain, to which it had foreig-n 
been united since 1580. With her Charles received politics, 
the island of Bombay, in the East Indies, and Tangiers, on the north- 
west coast of Africa. The possession of these places gave England 
new opportunities for trade, which Charles, like all his family, had 
much at heart. The same year Clarendon sold Dun- Dunkirk sold 
kirk to the French. This was probably not unwise, *° *-^® French, 
but it made Clarendon very impopular. It was said that he had 
been bribed, and a new house which he was building was nicknamed 
Dunkirk House. In 1664 war broke out with the war with the 
Dutch. Its chief cause was the commercial and Dutch, 
colonial jealousy which had brought about the former war, and to 
this was added the annoyance which was felt by Charles because 
the Dutch burghers were keeping out of power the house of Orange, 
the head of which. Prince Wilham, was his nephew. At first the 
English were successful. Sir Kobert Holmes seizing the Dutch 
colony of the New Netherlands, which lay between Virginia and 
the New England States. It became an English capture of 
colony, and its capital, New Amsterdam, received ^^^ York. 

^ ' Battle of 

the name of New York, in honour of the king's Lowestoft, 
brother. In 1665 the Duke of York won a great victory over 
the Dutch off Lowestoft, on the Suffolk coast. 

However, in 1666 the French, who had always been friends with 
the burgher party, came to their assistance. In spite of this the 
English, under Prince Kupert and Monk (now Duke of Albemarle), 
won several victories, but in 1667 the Dutch advanced into the 



2 68 The Stuarts. [lee?- 

Thames, and burnt tiie ships at the mouth of the Medway. Soon 
afterwards peace was made between England and Holland. 

This war is remarkable for another point. In 1665 Parliament 
granted £1,250,000 to be spent on the war only, so beginning the 
Appropriation Practice of making special votes for special things, 
of supplies, called appropriation of supplies, which gave it a 
much more efficient control over expenditure than when money 
was voted to be added to the general fund, to be spent at the 
discretion of the government. 

Besides the failure of the Dutch war, England had been unfortunate 

in other respects. In 1665 occurred the Great Plague, the last of 

the great pestilences which from time to time devastated the filthy 

alleys and narrow streets which formed the towns of mediaeval 

The Fire of Europe, and in September the next year a great fire 

liondon. raged for four days, which destroyed St. Paul's Cathe- 
dral and the greater part of the city of London. Clarendon was 
also unpopular with the king, of whose dissipated life he disap- 
ciarendon is proved, and SO, when an outcry was raised against 
^^d^me^ to' ^™' ^^ ^^^ dismissed from his post and impeached 
the Continent, in 1667. By Charles' advice he fled to the Continent, 
where he spent the remainder of his life in completing a history of 
the Great Kebellion which he had begun during his former exile. 

During Clarendon's ministry important events occurred in Scot- 
land and Ireland. In Scotland, in spite of the wishes of the people, 

Events in the old form of government was restored. Episcopacy 

Scotland. re-established, and the persecution of the Covenanters 

begun. In Ireland an Act of Settlement was passed, by which a 

Treatment of Certain amount of the land forfeited by Cromwell 

the Irish. -^^^ restored to the Catholics and Ro3''alists. Un- 
happily, the English Parliament did all it could to injure Irish trade, 
in the interests of the English merchants and manufacturers. The 
Irish were forbidden to trade with the English colonies, or to enjoy 
the benefit of the Navigation Act. They were also forbidden to 
export to England either cattle, meat, or butter, so that everything 
was done to check the development of the country. 

After Clarendon's fall, the king gave his confidence to a group of 
five statesmen — Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley, and Lauder- 
dale. Such a group was called a " Cabal," but as this word is formed 



1672.] 



Charles IL 269 



by the first letters of these statesmen's names, it is often thought 
that it was derived from them. The Cabal was really ^^^ ^^^^^ 
very much like the modern Cabinet. The chief aim 
of the Cabal was to reverse Clarendon's pohcy, and they therefore 
formed a Triple Alliance, between Holland, Sweden, The Triple 
and England, against France. This poHcy was pro- AUiance 
bably quite right, for France, not Spain, was now the most dangerous 
power in Europe, and the treaty was therefore very popular in Eng- 
land. The ministry also tried to induce Parliament to do some- 
thing for the Catholics and Nonconformists, but mthout success. 
To Charles the Triple Alliance was distasteful. Under his mother's 
influence, both he and his brother James, Duke of Distasteful to 
York, were attached to the Roman Catholic faith, Charles, 
and he behoved that Louis' aid would alone enable him to openly 
declare his religion. Accordingly, in 1670, Charles secret treaty 
made with France the secret treaty of Dover, by with France, 
which he agreed to make war upon Holland and to declare himself 
a CathoHc, upon condition that Louis should pay to him a large 
sum of money, and that he should also receive a share of Holland 
when it had been conquered. Of this treaty the nation knew 
nothing, and only Clifford and Arlington were aware that Charles 
had promised to declare himself a Catholic. Charles well knew that 
Parliament would disapprove of his new poHcy, so as soon as he had 
induced it to make a liberal grant for the navy, under the impression 
that war was to be declared against France, it was prorogued, and 
did not meet again for nearly two years. 

Meanwhile, to add to his resources, the king gave notice that he was 
not going to pay back the loans which fell due this year, but that only 
the interest on them would be paid. By this means ^j^^^^j^g refuses 
Charles kept a large sum of ready money which ought to repay the 
to have gone to his creditors ; but the transaction 
really amounted to a national bankruptcy, and the greatest con- 
sternation prevailed among those capitalists who had reckoned on 
the payment of the money due to them. Next, to Duke of York 
try the temper of the nation, the Duke of York was received into 

. . the Roman 

publicly received into the Roman Catholic Church, cathouc 
and then a Declaration of Indulgence was proclaimed, church, 
by which the king suspended the operation of all Acts of Parlia- 



270 The Stuarts. [i67s- 

inent against Nonconformists and Catholics. These acts filled the 
nation with consternation, and their surprise was still greater when 
the Enghsh fleet suddenly issued from Portsmouth, and, without even 
English, attack ^ declaration of war, attacked the Dutch spice fleet 

the Dutch, which was peacefully anchored off the Isle of Wight. 

s'outhwofd "^^^ Dutch beat ofl* the attack, but war was simul- 
Bay. taneously declared against them by England and 

France, and a great battle was fought in Southwold Bay, which, 
however, was indecisive. 

In the beginning of 1673 Parhament met. The members were 

in high dudgeon. They at once forced Charles to withdraw the 

Declaration of Indulgence, and thinking that the cause 

The Cahal 

ministry of his misdeods lay in his having Catholic ministers, 
broken up. pegged the Test Act, by which it was ordered that all 
persons holding office under the crown were to take the Sacrament 
according to the rites of the Church of England, and make a 
declaration against transubstantiation. This act made it impossible 
for a Catholic to hold office. Clifford and Arlington resigned, and 
the Duke of York gave up his office of High Admiral. Ashley, now 
Lord Shaftesbury, and Buckingham left office and joined the 
opposition, and so the Cabal ministry was broken up ; Lauderdale 
alone keeping his place in Scotland. 

Sir Thomas Osborne, afterwards known as Earl of Danby and 

Duke of Leeds, now became Lord Treasurer and leading minister. 

In foreiern policy he agreed with the principles of 

The court far./ o r r 

and country the Triple Alliance, and at home strongly supported 
parties. ^^^ Church of England and the royal prerogative. 
Since 1661 there had been no general election, but the temper 
of the Parliament had a great deal changed, for Charles' govern- 
ment and his manner of life had alienated many of the members. 
These usually belonged to the country, as distinguished from the 
court, and so two parties sprung up — a court party which supported 
the government, a country party which formed the opposition. The 
policy of the country party consisted of strong attachment to the 
Church, and distrust of the Catholics and Nonconformists. Abroad 
they were for peace with Holland and war with France, but they 
were much afraid of an increase in the standing army. The 
existence of this opposition kept Louis XIV. in continual fear, for 



1677.] 



Charles II. 271 



he dreaded lest thej should force Charles to go to war with him ; 
he therefore played a double game. When he thought Attitude of 
the opposition likely to get their way, he would pay ""^J^a^dJ" 
Charles money to enable him to prorogue the Par- England, 
liament ; if he thought Charles was too independent, he would help 
the opposition to attack him. Consequently there was no consistency 
in the action of either king or Parliament. 

In 1674 Parliament met, and the country party attacked Bucking- 
ham, Arlington, and Lauderdale. The same year peace was made 
with Holland ; by it England kept St Helena, an island -p^^^^ qq^. 
off the coast of Africa, which was very useful as a eluded with 
place of call for our ships going to and from the East 
Indies. This peace made Louis afraid that England would join 
Flolland against him, so he gave Charles an annuity of £120,000, 
in order that he might do without a Parliament, Louis bribes 
which was accordingly prorogued for fifteen months. cbaries. 
When it met again, in 1677, Shaftesbury and Buckingham, who 
now led the opposition in the House of Lords, and whose great 
object was to force on a general election, as they thought that their 
party was stronger in the country than in the House, strug-g-ies 
contended that Parliament was dissolved by lapse of cSStl^ 
time. Their reasoning, however, was not admitted, Opposition, 
and the Lords sent them to the Tower for refusing to apologize to 
the House. Incited by Louis, the country party now demanded the 
dismissal of the army, which would effectually have prevented 
England from interfering on the Continent. Danby, on the other 
hand, revived the policy of the triple alliance by The Dutch, 
arranging that Mary, the eldest daughter of the Duke marriage, 
of York, and heir presumptive to the crown, should marry her 
cousin, William of Orange,^ Stadtholder of Holland. This marriage 

' GENEALOGY OF WILLIAM OF ORANGE. 
William the Silent, d. 1584. 



Maurice, d. 1625. Frederick Henry, d. 1647. 



William II. m. Mary, daughter of Charles L of England, 
d. 1650. I d. 1660. 

William 111. of England, 
d. 1702. 



272 The Stuarts, [i677- 

was tliorouglily popular. William was figliting bravely against the 

French, who had invaded Holland in 1672, and in 1678 Parliament 

Parliament voted money for a war with France. This made 

'^°forwa?^'' Louis rctum to his old tactics, and he distributed 

■with France, money among the members of Parliament who were 

opposing the government, and at the same time he entered into 

negotiations with the Dutch. 

During the negotiations Charles made a secret treaty with France, 

by which he agreed, for £300,000 a year for three years, to dissolve 

„, , , ^ Parliament, to disband the army, and not to assist 
Charles secret ' '' 

treaty witii the Dutch if they continued the war. In obedience 

to the king's order, the text of this treaty was written 

by Danby. As soon as Louis had secured his treaty with the 

liouis betrays I^wtch_, he revenged himself on Danby, whom he had 

Danby. never forgiven for the marriage of William and Mary, 

by disclosing his share in the French treaty to the leaders of the 

country party. Upon this the Commons impeached Danby^ and, 

to save him, Charles in 1679 dissolved Parliament, after it had sat 

since 1661. As had been expected, the country party were much 

Danby's stronger in the new House, and were able to renew 

impeaciinient. Danby's impeachment, and to commit him to the 

Tower, where he remained till the end of the reign. 

Three administrations, those of Clarendon, the Cabal, and Danby, 
had now been overthrown by the votes of Parliament, and many 
thought that such sharp contests between the king 
plan for ^"^^ Parliament ought to be avoided. Others disliked 
making- ^j^g j^g^ practice of giving the chief power to a small 
more and secret committee of the Privy Council, such as 

impo an . ^^^ Cabal had been, and accordingly Sir William 
Temple brought forward a plan for making the Privy Council much 
more important, so that it might act as a check upon both the king 
and the Parliament. The new council included not only the lead- 
ing ministers, Robert Spencer, Earl of Sunderland, Sir William 
Temple, Arthur Capel, Eari of Essex, and George Savile, Marquess 
of Halifax, but also Shaftesbury, William, Lord Russell, and other 
leaders of the country party. The plan, however, did not work 
well, and power soon fell, as before, into the hands of a small body 
of confidential advisers, which developed into the modern cabinet. 



1680.1 Charles II. 273 

Meanwhile all England had been agitated by the story of a 
Popish Plot. Ever since the gunpowder conspiracy the country had 
been ready enough to believe any stories against the r^^^ Popisii 
Roman Catholics, and in 1666 it was seriously thought "BYot. 

that the fire of London had been caused by them, There was no 
doubt, too, that Charles and James were secretly working in favour 
of the Catholics, and this added to the anxiety of the nation. But in 
1678 an impostor, called Titus Gates, came forward with an absurd 
story of a plot of the Catholics to murder the king and the Duke of 
York, who were their best friends. In spite of the obvious falseness 
of the story, it created such excitement that hundreds of Catholics 
were arrested, and the king, feeling the weakness of his position 
as an unacknowledged Catholic, did not dare to interfere on their 
behalf. Accordingly, while the panic lasted many Catholics, of whom 
the chief was Viscount Stafford, were executed, and the ill feeling 
against that body was increased. 

One result of this was an attempt to exclude the Duke of York 
from the throne, and in 1679 a bill for this purpose was brought into 
the Commons. If James were excluded, it was pro- Attempt to 
posed to put the Protestant Mary and her husband exclude the 
William on the throne. This made the bill popular, from the 
and secured it the good will of William of Orange, tiirone. 
who wanted English help against France. The king refused to 
sacrifice the interests of his brother, and dissolved the charies con- 
Parliament. This dissolution is notable for another Habeas^COT^a 
event. At it the king gave his consent to the -^ct. 

famous Habeas Corpus Act, which provided that no Englishman 
should be kept in prison without trial, and gave facilities to a 
prisoner for obtaining either a speedy trial or release on bail. 

The fourth Parliament of Charles met in 1680. The country was 
now in a state of wild excitement. In Scotland, a party of fanatics 
had murdered Sharp, Archbishop of St. Andrews, the battle of Both- 
head of the Episcopal Church, and the Covenanters '^^^ Briggr. 
had risen in revolt against the government, which had defeated 
them at Bothwell Brigg. 

In England, the king's delay to summon a Parliament had 
revived all the party feeling of the previous reign. On the one 
side petitions were sent to the king, urging him to assemble 

T 



2/4 -^^ Stuarts. rieso- 

Paiiiament; on the other, counter petitions were sent from those 
who abhorred the Exclusion Bill. From this came the names of 
"Petitioners" and "Abhorrers," which were afterwards changed 

•wniigsand i^^^o Wliigs and Tories. These names were given to 
Tories. ^^^ parties by their opponents. Whig was supposed to 
denote the Presbyterians of Scotland, who were sometimes called 
Whigamoors, with whom the Exclusionists were said to be allied ; and 
a Tory was properly an Irish brigand. It is needless to say that 
these names soon lost their original meaning, and were adopted as 
honourable distinctions by the two parties. Both Whigs and Tories 
were in favour of government by king and Parliament ; but the Tories 
thought much of the king's divine right, while the Whigs were 
inclined to look upon him as only an official. On the other hand 
the Tories were stout supporters of the Church, while the Whig 
members, though themselves Churchmen, leaned to alliance with 
the Nonconformists. Members of both parties were to be found in 
all ranks of society, for in England Whig and Tory have never 
been class distinctions. 

In 1680 the Whigs were in favour of the Exclusion Bill, while 

the Tories, on their theory of divine right, were opposed to changing 

the order of succession. However, in the House of 

Defeat of . . ' , t i , -n 

tiie Exclusion Commons a large majority were Whigs, and the bill 

"Rill 

was passed by them and sent up to the House of 
Lords. In that House it was defeated by the influence of the 
Prince of Orange. So long as Mary was to succeed Charles, the 
Prince had been eager for the bill ; but some of the extreme Whigs 
were now pressing the claims of the Duke of Monmouth, an illegiti- 
mate son of Charles, and this turned the prince against it. The 
supporters of the bill did not despair, but the next year Charles 
declared that he would never give his consent to it ; and when 
It was again brought forward, and the Commons threatened to stop 
supplies, Parliament was dissolved in 1681. 

The elections were conducted amidst great excitement, but the 

Whigs had a majority at the polls, and it seemed certain that the 

struggle would be renewed with much rancour. In 

meets at these circumstanccs Charles acted with skill; he 
Oxford. g^g^ ^^ pj^^g q£ meeting at Oxford, which had 

been his father's head-quarters, and was stoutly Tory, while he 



1683.J Charles II. 



275 



disposed his regular troops between Oxford and London, which was 
the stronghold of the Whigs. To Oxford the members came with 
troops of servants, the Whigs wearing blue ribands as their party 
colour. Civil war seemed to be imminent, when Charles, after 
offering that James should only reign in name, and that the ad- 
ministration should be in the hands of Protestants — a proposal which 
the Commons rejected — suddenly dissolved Parliament. 

This done, the Whigs were no longer an organized body; the 
members were forced to disperse, and so long as the king could 
do without a Parliament, they had no chance of gaining their ends 
but by insurrection. But there was little chance of Charles calling 
a Parliament. Louis, to whom a union of the powers of England 
and Holland under William of Orange would be most Discomfiture of 
dangerous, agreed to give Charles £250,000 in the the-whigs, 
next three years, which relieved Charles of his immediate diffi- 
culties. The next step of the government was to prosecute Shaftes- 
bury, the leader of the opposition, for treason ; but Prosecutio 
the grand jury of London, who were Whigs, ignored Shaftesbiiry. 
the bill, and the trial thus falling through, Shaftesbury left the 
country in 1682, and died next year. Shaftesbury was an able 
man, and his scheme to exclude James had been very nearly 
successful, and had only failed on account of his foolish substitution 
of Monmouth for Mary as the king's successor. Monmouth's 
Undeterred, however, by the fall of his supporters, supporters. 
Monmouth had by no means given up hopes of the crown. In 
1682 he made a progress through England, in which he assumed 
royal state, and pretended to have the power of curing people, by 
his touch, of the king's evil, which it was supposed to be in the 
king's power to do. 

Experience had taught Charles that he could not maintain his 
ministers in face of a hostile Parliament. He therefore deter- 
mined to try and secure a permanent majority in the 
Commons. The strength of the Whigs lay in the biroughs^^ 
boroughs, that of the Tories in the counties. The ^^^o^^^e^^- 
election of borough members was usually in the hands of a close 
corporation, that is to say, one which filled up its own vacancies. 
These bodies were usually Whig, and Charles saw that if he could 
get rid of the existing members and replace them by Tories, lie 



276 The Stuarts, [I682- 

could look forward to a great increase in the number of Tory 
members. Accordingly, he began by demanding the charter of the 
city of London, and, on pretence that it had been violated in some 
particular, forfeited it and immediately regranted it, only naming a 
new Tory corporation. He then issued a series of writs of ''Quo 
warranto," by which he forfeited almost all the charters of the 
Parliamentary boroughs, few of which, in course of time, had not in 
some way infringed the terms of their charters. In restoring these 
charters the king reserved to himself the right of confirming all 
elections to municipal offices, and, in case he were dissatisfied, of 
naming the officers himself. 

Meanwhile violent schemes had been discussed by the Whig 
party. It is certain that the leaders had set their face against any 

Rtunboid's rcsort to arms, but their followers had not been so 

plot. moderate, and a few of the more reckless, at the 

head of whom was an old soldier, named Eumbold, had formed 

a plan to murder the king and the Duke of York on their return 

rom Newmarket to London. The scheme failed, and some of the 
plotters were arrested. The government then took the unjustifiable 
Arrest of Lord coursc of arresting William, Lord Russell, and Alger- 

^Ai^eri^^ non Sidney, and trying them along with the other 
Sidney. prisoners, as if they had been concerned in one wide- 
spread conspiracy. The evidence against them was ridiculously 
slight, but by browbeating the witnesses and intimidating the jury 
the judges contrived to get verdicts for the crown. Both were 
executed, and were looked upon as martyrs to the Whig cause. 
The next year Monmouth was pardoned for his late extravagant 
proceedings, but was banished to Holland. 

This brought to a conclusion Charles' triumph over his 
opponents. He was now little less than an absolute king. He 
possessed a small standing army, and named the officers of the 

Triumpii of militia and the commanders of fortresses ; he dis- 
Charies. misscd the judges as he thought fit, and could 
secure the services of compliant jurymen; the appointment of 
magistrates was practically in his hands; and, more than all, by 
remodelling the corporations he had secured the means of packing 
the House of Commons. 
On February 6, the next year, at the height of his power, 



1685,] Charles II, 



277 



Charles suddenly died. He was a man of consummate ability, 
who concealed under the appearance of frivolity a Death of 
talent for intrigue, which baffled the ablest statesmen ciiaries 11. 
of his day. On his death-bed he admitted that he was a Koman 
Catholic, and received absolution from a Catholic priest. By his 
wife, Katharine of Braganza, he had no children ; but he left a 
large family of natural children, most of whom were raised to the 
peerage. His heir, therefore, was James, Duke of York, who had 
married Anne Hyde, daughter of Lord Chancellor Clarendon. 

In 1662 a most important change was made in the Poor Law by 
the creation of the Law of Settlement. By this law any labourer, 
coming to seek work iu a strange parish, might within rj^y^^ j^^^ of 
forty days be removed back to his own parish, unless settlement, 
he took a tenement over £10 a year in value, or gave security that 
he would not become chargeable to the parish rates. The effect 
of this law was practically to bind the agricultural labourers to 
the soil of their own parishes, and to prevent them from settling 
where they could sell their labour to the best advantage. This 
Act was modified in 1795, but down to 1834 great obstacles were 
placed by the Poor Law in the way of the circulation of labour. 



CHAPTER V. 
James IL, 1685-1689 (4 years). 
Born 1633 j married \ J^^^| ^^ ff Modena. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — Rochester ; Halifax ; the Earl of Godol- 
phin ; Robert Spencer, Earl of Sunderland ; Monmouth ; Jeffrej^s ; the 
Marquess of Argyll ; Hough ; Conipton ; Sancroft ; Petre ; Tyrconnel ; 
Danby ; Henry Sidney ; and Edward Russell. 

Chief Contemporary Sovereigns. 
France. Spain. Holland. 

Louis XIV., Charles II., Stadtholder William of Orange, 

1643-1715. 1665-1700. 1672-1702, 

On his brother's death, James, Duke of York, was at once pro- 
claimed king. In his first speech to the council he declared that 
Accession of ^^ would maintain the government, both in Church 

James II. ^j^jj State, as by law established. James was a very 
different man from his brother, being both more narrow-minded and 
more conscientious, and he had the same want of ability to under- 
stand the wishes of the nation which his father had shown. Still he 
was an excellent man of business, and had done much to improve 
the condition of the navy. The new king gave his confidence to 
his brother-in-law, Eochester, Clarendon's son ; to Halifax, whose 
speech in the House of Lords had brought about the defeat of the 
Exclusion Bill ; to Lord Godolphin, a most able financier ; and to 
Lord Sunderland. 

James' first act was to order the customs' duties, which had been 
voted to Charles for fife, to be collected as usual, though they could 

James' first ^^t be renewed till Parliament met. There was much 

acts. to be said for avoiding a break, as the intermission of 

the collection would cause great disorder in trade ; but the act was 



1685.] James II. 279 

certainly unconstitutional. Besides this revenue, James also received 
a grant of £67,000 from France. During the early days of the 
reign Gates, who had been the chief witness against the victims of 
the Popish Plot, was convicted of perjury. There is no doubt that 
he richly deserved punishment, and he was sentenced to be 
flogged, pilloried, and imprisoned for life. Danby and the Roman 
Catholic lords who remained in the Tower were now released. 
About the same time, Baxter, one of the noblest of the Noncon- 
formist ministers, w^as also prosecuted for protesting against the 
persecution of the Nonconformists, and convicted, after a grossly 
unfair trial, at which the notorious Judge Jeffreys presided. 

In May Parliament met. Full use had been made of the king's 
new powers in the boroughs, and so successful had been Charles' 
measures, that James said himself that " there were Mutual satis- 
not above forty members but such as he himself jamfs'aSdMs 
wished for." Parliament showed itself equally pleased Parliament, 
with the new sovereign, and voted James all his brother's revenue, 
and, besides, a new tax on sugar and tobacco. 

Though James had been allowed to succeed so quietly, Monmouth 
had no intention of giving up his hopes without a struggle. Accord- 
indv, he ioined with his fellow-exile, Argyll, to make 

° rN.ii TT7111 Argyll's rising-. 

simultaneous attempts upon Scotland and England. 
Owing, however, to bad management, Argyll landed first. He 
found the government well prepared, and his attempt proved a com- 
plete failure. He himself was captured and executed. Monmouth 
landed m Dorsetshire, and slowly made his way to the manufacturing 
district of Somersetshire, where he was popular with Monmouth's 
the clothiers. By the lower and middle classes he rising, 
was received with enthusiasm, but he obtained no support from the 
nobility. He set out towards Shropshire and Cheshire, where he 
was also popular ; but turned back from Bristol, and by that time 
the regular troops under Feversham and Churchill, who was after- 
wards the great Duke of Marlborough, had arrived on the scene. 
To give his untrained troops the best chance against the regulars, 
Monmouth attem.pted to surprise the royal camp on Battle of 
Sedgemoor, near Bridgewater; but by accident his sedgemoor. 
scheme failed, and his untrained peasants, weavers and colliers, 
though they showed wonderful courage, were routed without diffi- 



2 So The Stuarts. 



[1685- 



ciilty by the trained troops. Monmouth himself fled, but was 

Execution of Captured, and though he begged James for mercy on 

Monmouth., j^g knees, was executed. Terrible cruelty was shown 

to the rebels by Colonel Kirke and his soldiers, and Judge Jeffreys 

was sent to try the prisoners, when his cruelty gained for him eter- 

The nal infamy as the author of the Bloody Assize. At 

oo y Assize. ^^^^^ three hundred persons were executed, and eight 

hundred more were shipped off to the American colonies. For 

his exploits Jeffreys was made a peer. The failure of Monmouth's 

rebellion showed clearly what a change had been made by the 

introduction of a standing army : formerly insurgents could bring 

into the field as good troops as the king, but now no insurrection 

had any chance which was not backed by a trained force. 

The failure of the insurrection gave James great confidence, and 

he now set about his scheme of securing the ascendency of the 

Scheme for Catholics. His first step was to remove Halifax from 

emancipating the Privy Council, and at the same time Jeffreys was 

made Lord Chancellor. While James was making 

his preparations, Louis XIV., King of France, revoked the Edict of 

Revocation of Nantes, which had been granted by Henry IV., and 

the Ed let upon which the toleration of the French Protestants 

depended. Thousands of the best work-people in 

France were expelled. Many took refuge in England, and their 

arrival strengthened the Protestant feeling of the country. The 

proceedings of Louis made men watch James with greater anxiety. 

Even the ParHament showed symptoms of resistance. 

The chief obstacle to James' employment of Cathohcs was the 

Test Act, passed in 1673. James beheved that his prerogative 

James con- enabled him to grant a dispensation to a private 

tinueshis person, to hold office without having fulfilled its 

efforts to J- • AT 

emancipate the Conditions. Accordingly, he gave a commission in 
cathoncs. ^j^Q ^j.j^y ^^ g.^, Edward Hales, a Catholic, and then, 
to try the legality of this, had a suit brought against Hales by his 
coachman for violating the Test Act. At the trial the judges, 
who, it must be remembered, could at any time be dismissed by 
the king, gave a decision in his favour, and James, armed with 
this, gave commissions and preferments to other Eoman Catholics. 
Among others, Massey, a Eomanist, was made Dean of Christ 



1687.] lames II. 281 

church, Oxford. James was encouraged to take this course by 
the way in which the Church and the universities had constantly 
proclaimed their adherence to the doctrine that resistance to a king 
was, under any circumstances, unlawful, and he therefore believed 
that he could make the Church of England join him in favouring 
the Eoman Catholics. However, to secure his hold The new court 
over the Church, he illegally set up a new court of asti^ai^com- 
Ecclesiastical Commission with Jeffreys at its head ; mission, 
while, to overawe the capital, he formed a camp of thirteen thousand 
troops on Hounslow Heath. Feeling ,confident in these measures, 
James now began to put Catholics into all the chief posts. Clarendon, 
son of the chancellor, was recalled from Ireland, and the lord-lieuten- 
antcy given to Tyrconnel, a Catholic. At the same time Eochester, 
who refused to change his rehgion, was removed from the Treasury. 

In 1686 the Ecclesiastical Commission began by suspending 
Compton, Bishop of London, and then attacked the Universities of 
Oxford and Cambridge. The Vice-Chancellor of 
Cambridge was deprived of his office for not granting Oxford and . 
the degree of M.A. to a Benedictine monk, which he ^^ ^^ ^^' 
could not legally do. Oxford's turn came next. The king had 
ordered the fellows of Magdalen to elect Farmer, a Eoman Catholic, 
their president. They refused, and chose John Hough. The king 
then ordered them to choose Parker, Bishop of Oxford. They 
asserted that Hough's election was valid, and upon this the com- 
mission deprived all the Fellows of their places, and Eoman Catholics 
were appointed instead. In this way James contrived to alienate, 
not only the Church of England, but also the universities. 

In 1687 the king, finding that he could get no help from the 
Church, changed his tactics and issued a Declaration of Indulgence, 
by which he suspended the penal statutes against 
both the Eoman Catholics and the Protestant Non- Noncon- 
conformists, hoping in this way to ally these bodies *■ ^o^'^^sts. 
against the Church; and so certain did he feel of success, that 
he ventured to receive a nuncio from the pope, and to make 
Petre, an English Jesuit, a member of the Privy Council. If James 
had merely wished to grant to the Nonconformists and Catholics equal 
rights with Churchmen, there would have been much in his scheme 
to be commended ; but it is clear he meant to do more, and that 



282 The Stuarts. [les?- 

tliough the Catholics did not number more than one in thirty of the 
population, he intended to give them an altogetlier disproportionate 
power in the State. 

For two years no Parliament had sat, but James had such con- 
fidence in the influence of the crown, which had the power of 
James tries to remodelling the corporations, that he believed it 
ment f^ourabie possiblc to get a Parliament which would confirm the 
to Ms views. Declaration of Indulgence. He therefore wrote to 
the lord-lieutenants of counties, asking them to furnish a list of 
Catholics and Nonconformists suitable for members of Parliament, 
and also asking the magistrates whether they avouM support candi- 
dates who were in favour of his views. Though many of the 
lord-lieutenants and magistrates were men who had fought for 
Charles I. in the old wars, they either refused to answer or evaded 
the questions, and many of them resigned their posts, which were 
at once filled up by Catholics. Towns which seemed likely to be 
refractory had their corporations again remodelled. 

James had now managed to offend the old adherents of his father — 
the nobility, the country gentry, the universities, and the Church — 
Failure of ^^^ '^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ doubtful what hne would be taken 
James' "by the Nonconformists. Their treatment by the 
over the Non- Church since the restoration had been most ex- 
conformists, asperating, and it could hardly have been wondered 
at if at this crisis they had made common cause with the king. But 
the Nonconformists judged the temper of the nation better than 
the king had done; they saw that the mass of the nation was 
attached to the Church, and that a free Parliament was certain to 
reverse James' measures. They also believed that James' proceed- 
ings, however favourable to themselves at the moment, were only part 
of a general plan to destroy the liberties of the country. The majority 
therefore determined to ally themselves with the Church and to 
trust to the gratitude of Parliament for reward. Accordingly, 
James' attempt to win them over to his side was a failure. 

Hitherto the country had borne James' proceedings with 

tolerable patience, because they believed that he would soon be 

The succession succeeded by Mary and William, when all would be 

to the crown, restored ; but now an event happened which made the 

outlook much more serious. None of the children of James and his 



1688.] James II, 283 

second wife, Mary of Modena, had hitherto lived, and it was five 
years since the last had been born, when it was announced that 
the queen was likely to have a child. If the infant were a boy he 
would be the heir-apparent to the throne, which would dash to the 
ground the hopes of Mary and William. Of course he would be 
educated as a CathoHc, and the present system would be perpetual. 
Naturally the Protestants were dismayed, while the Catholics showed 
every symptom of hope. 

It was under these circumstances that James was reckless enough 
to put to further test the endurance of the Church. In April, 1687, 
he issued the second Declaration of Indulgence, and 
commanded the clergy of the Established Church to committed to 
read it from their pulpits on two Sundays. To be asked *^® Tower, 
to publish to their own parishioners this unlawful decree was more 
than the most strenuous supporter of non-resistance could bear, and 
seven of the bishops, headed by San croft. Archbishop of Canterbury, 
drew up and presented to the king a respectful and temperate memo- 
rial, asking to be excused. " This," said the king, " is a standard of 
rebellion," and ordered the bishops to be committed to the Tower. 
Meanwhile the petition was printed and circulated, and James' 
rash words brought about their own fulfilment. Still James failed 
to read the signs of the times. On June 10 a son, 
afterwards the Old Pretender, was born to him ; but ^ . ° ^ ^°^' 
the king was so foolish as not to ask the Princess Anne, who was in 
England, or any of the leading Protestants to be present, while the 
palace was crowded with enthusiastic Catholics. Consequently the 
Protestants, who had everything to lose by the birth, spread the 
rumour that the child was not the queen's at all, but had been 
brought into the palace in a warming-pan ; and James' folly had 
deprived him of the power of refuting the story, which was widely 
believed by the Protestants. Three weeks later the bishops were 
tried for libel. The best lawyers were employed on both sides, 
everything that could be done by the crown judges Acquittal of 
to secure a verdict was attempted ; but a verdict of *^® bishops. 
" Not guilty " was returned, and the shouts of the crowd told how 
popular was the result. That night all London was illuminated. 
Still the king would have been comparatively safe had he had 
the army with him. But his folly had lost him its support. He 



284 The Stuarts » [less. 

had brought his men to Hounslow to overawe the Londoners, 
Defection of ^^^ ^^ citizens had won over the army. Their camp 

the army. j^^d been made a picnic-gromid, and the men were 
filled with popular sentiments. On the day of the bishops' trial 
James visitod the camp, and as he left it he heard sounds of 
cheering bursting from all sides. "What is that?" said the king. 
" Oh, nothing," said an attendant, " except that the soldiers are glad 
that the bishops are acquitted." "Do you call that nothing? so 
much the worse for them," said the king, and rode gloomily away. 

Still the popular leaders felt that they could do nothing unless 

they could secure a regular army which would keep James' men 

Invitation to ^ check till a free Parliament could declare the will 

■WiUiam of of the nation ; so that very niffht Admiral Herbert 

Orange 

left London, carrying a letter to William of Orange, 
asking him to come over with an army and secure the liberties 
of the people. This letter was signed, not only by the Whigs 
Edward Russell, Henry Sidney, and the Earl of Devonshire, but 
also by the Tory Lumley, by Danby, the minister of Charles II., 
and by Compton, Bishop of London, and there was no doubt that 
it expressed the wishes of the nation. 

It was not, however, easy for William to respond. He had three 
things to fear. First, that Louis XIV. would do all he could. 
Difficulties in ^^^ ^^^7 ^'^ warn and help James, but also to stir up 
■Wimam's way. William's enemies in Holland to prevent his sailing; 
second, that if he went to England, it would be thought that 
he had gone to head a religious war, which would alienate those 
Catholics who were his allies against France ; third, that, if he went 
over and won a battle with his Dutch troops over the English, 
he would rouse the patriotism of the English, and so incline them 
How they were to support James. Fortunately at this crisis Louis 

removed. offended the Dutch burghers by passing laws against . 
their trade, and made them William's firm friends ; the same 
monarch also quarrelled with the pope, so that the Catholic powers 
were divided against themselves ; while James, by bringing over 
Irish regiments, disgusted the English soldiers, and removed the 
third cause of William's anxiety. Accordingly, the prince made his 
arrangements, and issued a declaration in which he gave a list of 
James' bad acts, and declared that, as husband of Mary, he was 



1688.] James II, 285 

coming with an army to secure a free and legal Parliament, by 
whose decision he would abide. 

Hitherto James had been as high-handed as ever. Almost with- 
out exception the clergy had refused to read the declaration, and he 
had had a list of ten thousand names prepared to james begins 
be proceeded against in the Privy Council. But *° retract, 
when he heard that William was coming he reversed his acts, dis- 
solved the Ecclesiastical Commission, restored the Fellows of 
Magdalen College, and removed Sunderland and Petre, the Jesuit, 
from the council, and restored the charters of London and other 
towns. 

William, however, had gone too far to retract. The great lords 
who had sent the invitation were ready to raise an insurrection in 
the north. Lord Churchill, afterwards Duke of Marl- _ 

' . ^William 

borough, whose wife was the bosom friend of the invades 
Princess Anne, sharing the disgust of the army at island, 
the intrusion of the Irish, had planned a secession in the army and 
the flight of Anne to the rebels. William, therefore, determined 
to persevere, and after being driven back once by an adverse wind, 
he finally sailed on November 2. Even then his plans had to be 
altered. He had intended to land in Yorkshire, where the northern 
earls were ready to receive him ; but, the wind being unfavourable 
he steered for the Channel, and on November 5 liandsat 
landed at Torbay. This was unfortunate, as the west Torbay. 
had been cowed by the Bloody Assize. However, it could not be 
helped, and William directed his march on London. The king 
advanced his troops to Salisbury, and was preparing for battle 
when Churchill's treachery defeated his plans. One james 
after another officers and men slipped over to the deserted, 
invaders, and Churchill himself presently followed. The Princess 
Anne deserted her father and joined the northern insurgents. 

In this state of things James did not know whom to trust. His 
first act was to send away his wife and the little Prince of Wales. 
Assured of their safety, he entered into negotiations. Flight of 
and had actually made arrangements for calling a James. 
Parliament, when, suddenly changing his mind, he fled in disguise 
from London, throwing the great seal into the water as he crossed the 
Thames. His flight relieved William of much embarrassment, and 



286 The Stuarts. [less- 

the prince was by no means pleased when he heard that some fisher- 
men had captured James mider the idea that he was a smuggler. 
James was brought back to Kochester, but, every facility being 
afforded him, he again escaped, and was this time successful in 
reaching France, where he was received with respect by Louis XIV. 
While James was at Eochester William arrived in 

arrives in London, and as the king's flight had left everything 
liondon. .^ disorder, he at once assembled the peers, all persons 
who had sat in any of Charles II.'s Parliaments, and the Lord 
Mayor and Aldermen of London, and asked their advice. They 
advised that a Convention should be regularly elected, which 
should only differ from a Parliament in being summoned by a man 
who was not king. 

In January, 1689, the Convention met. Some members were in 

favour of James being stiU king in name, with William as regent ; 

others thought that Mary was queen by the fact of 

"WiUiam and ° j -^ j 

Mary become her father's flight. But neither of these schemes being 
ting and dueen. ^^^gp^-^^ig ^^ William, and Mary most generously 

giving way, it was determined to settle the crown upon William 

and Mary, and to draw up a Declaration of Eight which should 

reaffirm the most important principles upon which the constitution 

of the country rested. William and Mary then became king and 

queen. These proceedings are generally known as the Eevolution. 

The Declaration of Eight, which afterwards formed the basis of 

the Bill of Eights, is one of the most important documents in English 

TiieDeciara- history. It brought to a close the great struggle 

tionof Rig-iit. between the king and the Parliament, which had now 

lasted nearly one hundred years, by laying down the law on a 

number of disputed points, all of which during this period had been 

matters of protest on the side of the Parliament. After stating one 

by one the chief unconstitutional acts of James II., it proceeded to 

make the following declarations : — 

L The pretended power of suspending or dispensing with the 
laws as assumed of late is illegal. 

2. The late Court of Ecclesiastical Commission and aU other 

such courts are illegal. 

3. Levying money by pretence of prerogative without grant of 

Parliament is illegal. 



I 



1689.] James II. 287 

4. Keeping a standing army in time of peace, miless with 

consent of Parliament, is illegal. 

5. Subjects haA^e a right to petition the king. 

6. The election of members of Parliament ought to be free. 

7. Freedom of speech and debate in Parliament ought not to 

be questioned in any court or place out of Parliament. 

8. Excessive fines must not be imposed, and jurors in cases for 

high treason must be freeholders. 

9. For redress of all grievances and for the strengthening of the 

laws Parliament ought to be held frequently. 
10. William and Mary are declared King and Queen of England, 
and all who are Papists or who shall marry a Papist are 
declared incapable of possessing the crown. After the 
death of both William and Mary, the crown was to go to 
their children, if they had any. If not, to the Princess 
Anne and her children ; and, in case of their failure, to 
the children of William by any other wife. 
The effect of the Revolution was threefold. In the first place, it 
destroyed the Stuart theorj^ of the divine right of kings, by changing 
the order of succession and setting up a king and queen who owed 
their position to the choice of Parhament. In the second, it gave an 
opportunity for reassertmg the principles of the English constitution, 
which it had been the aim of the Stuarts to set aside. In the third, 
it began what may be called the reign of Parliament. Up to the 
Revolution there is no doubt that the guiding force in directing the 
policy of the nation had been the will of the king. Since the Revo- 
lution the guiding force has been the will of the Parliament. 



CHAPTEK VI. 

William and Mart, 1689-1702 (13 years). 
William, born 1650 ; married 1677. Mary, born 1662 ; died 1694. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — George Savile, Marquess of Halifax ; Lord 
Danby, created Duke of Leeds ; the Earl of Shrewsbury ; the Earl of 
Nottingham ; Lord Godolphin ; Lord Churchill, afterwards Duke of 
Marlborough ; Somers ; Herbert, Lord Torrington ; Edward Russell, 
created Lord Orford ; Charles Montague, Earl of Halifax ; the Earl of 
Tyrconnel ; General Talmash ; Bentinck, Earl of Portland ; Thomas, 
Earl of Wharton ; Viscount Dundee. 

The new king was not likely to be a popular sovereign. Though 
he was beloved by his intimate friends, his manners were reserved 
in general society. At ordinary times his demeanour -w-miam's 
was cold, and those only who had seen him on the character and 
field of battle were aware of the energy of his spirit. 
In religion he cared little for outward forms, and was in favour 
of toleration ; in theology his views were Calvinistic. In foreign 
politics he was chiefly animated by hostility to Louis XIV., whose 
ambition he rightly regarded as dangerous to the interests of Eng- 
land and Holland, and threatening to the balance of power. At 
home he wished to allay the strife of parties and to unite the whole 
nation in support of his foreign policy. Mary, on the other hand, 
was engaging in her character, and as the representative of the 
direct line of the house of Stuart, her popularity was of great 
political importance. William's views naturally allied him to the 
Whigs, who agreed with him that it was better to fight Louis abroad 
than to give him peace to arrange an invasion of England. At 
the same time, the king believed that he would do well not to 
alienate the Tories, by whom, equally with the Whigs, he had been 
invited to England; so he formed a ministry com- The new 
posed of the noblemen of both parties, in which ministry. 
Danby was President of the Council, Halifax Privy Seal, Notting- 

u 



290 The Stuarts. [i689- 

ham and Shrewsbury Secretaries, and Godolpliin leading member 
of the Treasury Board, a committee which discharged the duties 
of the Lord High Treasurer. At the same time that these appoint- 
ments were made, James' servile judges were dismissed, and 
twelve new ones appointed in their stead. 

The Convention was now, without re-election, made into a 
Parliament. The annual revenue was fixed at £1,200,000, of 
which about £700,000 was given to the king for the 
support of the crown, and the rest was voted from 
time to time according to estimates prepared by the ministers. 
The first of these sums was called the Civil List. In this way 
Parliament secured a much firmer hold over the expenditure of the 
government, and the system has since then been made still more 
elaborate. In order to weed out all persons disaffected to the 

The non- government, a new oath of allegiance and supremacy 
jurors. Tj^as imposed on all place-holders both in Church and 
State. Seven bishops and about three hundred clergymen, who did 
not admit the right of Parhament to change the succession, refused 
to take it, and became, with their lay supporters, the body of non- 
jurors. They were, of course, deprived of their places. 

In 1689 the first annual Mutiny Act was passed. In the Declara- 
tion of Rights it had been declared that it was illegal for the king to 
The Mutiny keep a standing army in time of peace without the 
^^^' consent of Parliament. Since the Restoration, the 

standing army had been looked upon with great dislike by the Whigs, 
and it was hardly more popular with the Tories, but the necessities 
of the times clearly showed that England could no longer afford 
to be without one. A device, however, was found by which 
the advantages of a standing army were secured, while danger 
to liberty was decreased. This plan was to pass the Mutiny Act 
annually, so that if it were not renewed, the legal authoritj'' of the 
government over the soldiers would cease. As an additional safe- 
guard, the money for the army was voted for one year only, so that 
if Parhament felt any danger it could, by refusing to pass the 
Mutiny Act or to vote supplies, deprive the king of the force. 

The Nonconformists had played an important part in the Revolu- 

The Toleration ^io^) ^^^ ^^x% now rewarded by a bill, passed to allow 

Act. freedom of worship to Protestant Nonconformists; 



1692.] William IIL and Mary. 291 

their political disabilities, however, were left untouched, while the 
position of the Roman Catholics was unaltered. So many persons 
were liable to prosecution for the share which they had officially 
taken in James' proceedings, and in the various conspiracies and 
disturbances of the last two reigns, that a Bill of iheBm 
Indemnity was brought forward ; but the Whigs tried of indemnity, 
to introduce many exceptions, and the struggle between them and 
the Tories became so violent, that William, appalled at the difficulty 
of governing with such a distracted assembly, was hardly re* 
strained from returning to Holland. 

Parliament was then dissolved, and the difficulty was surmounted 
by an act of grace from the crown, which excluded only the 
regicides of Charles I. and about thirty others ; this The new 
number was, for the times, exceedingly moderate. Parliament. 
In March, 1690, the new Parliament met. In it the Tories 
had a majority, partly due to the natural reaction against the 
government, which always follows a great change, and partly to 
the unfair advantage which the Tories still possessed through the 
remodelling of the corporations by the last two kings. Hahfax, 
whose character v^as always that of a dispassionate critic rather 
than an active politician, then left the government, and the Tory 
Danby, who had now been created Marquess of Carmarthen, took 
the lead. 

We must now turn to the events in Scotland and Ireland. In 
Scotland the policy of the last two kings had been in complete 
opposition to the wishes of the people. Episcopacy Events in 
had been established as the law of the land, and Scotland. 
no one but an Episcopalian had been allowed to sit in Parliament 
or to vote at elections. The Presbyterians had been subjected to 
severe persecution, and during the late reign Catholics had been 
placed in the chief offices. As was natural, the news of events in 
England produced in Scotland a violent reaction* A Convention 
\vas called, whose members were chosen in elections at which 
I'resbyterians voted without regard to the law. The Whigs, there- 
fore, had a majority, and with hardly any opposition they accepted 
William and Mary as king and queen, and restored Presbyterianism. 

Nevertheless, the standard of James was raised in Scotland by 
John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee, who called the 



292 The Stuarts. [I689- 

Higlilanders to arms. The clans, however, were not unanimous, 
and when Mackay, WiUiam's general, marched from Perth to assist 
his friends, he was attacked by Dundee as his van-guard emerged 

Battle of from the narrow pass of Killiecrankie. In this battle 
Kuuecrankie. ^^ Highlanders charged the regulars with such 
violence, that after their first volley the English found the clansmen 
among them before they could fix bayonets. Taken thus at a 
disadvantage, they were defeated ; but a chance bullet killed 
Dundee, and Mackay brought off his troops with great skill. The 
fall of Dundee discouraged the Highlanders ; the movement was 
practically without a leader, and the clansmen soon returned 
to their homes, leaving William and Mary undisputed sovereigns. 

Measures were then taken to secure the pacification of the 
Highlands, and in the course of these occurred, in 1692, the 
The massacre niassacre of Glencoc. This cruel act, which has 
Of Giencoe. attracted much more notice in modern times than it 
did at the time, was due to the ill will between the Highlanders 
and the Lowlanders of Scotland. A proclamation was issued, 
ordering the Highland chiefs to swear allegiance to King William 
before January 1, 1692. The chiefs put off submission to the last 
moment, and one of them, the chief of the M 'Donalds of Giencoe, 
owing to a series of accidents, contrived to be too late. His 
enemies took advantage of this to get an order from the English 
government to " extirpate " the M'Donalds. Sufficient inquiry was 
not made before the order was given ; and nothing can excuse the 
treachery with which it was carried into efiect. The soldiers who 
were sent into the glen lived on the most friendly terms Avith the 
clansmen, till word was brought that all the passes were secured. 
Then, in the dead of night, they fell upon their hosts, the greater 
number of whom were shot or stabbed, and most of those who 
survived the massacre died miserably of cold and hunger. This 
cruelty naturally embittered the feelings of the Highlanders against 
the government. 

In Scotland the hatred of the people was turned against the 
government, in Ireland it was directed against English rule. There 

Events in James' preference for the Catholics made him popular, 

Ireland. j^^t the land question still rankled in the minds of the 

people, and the opportunity was taken to attack the English settlers, 



1692.] William III. mid Mary. 293 

and to make a push for Irish independence. The leader of the 
movement was James' lord-deputy, Tyrconnel, and assistance 
was expected from France. The flames spread rapidly over the 
three southern provinces, and in Ulster the Protestant settlers were 
fiercely attacked. The Scottish settlers for the most part retired to 
Londonderry, the Cromwellians to Enniskillen. So favourable did 
his prospects seem, that James came over and put himself at the 
head of the movement. His arrival, however, only served to cause 
disunion, as he had naturally no sympathy with the Irish desire 
for separation. Meanwhile the Protestants at Londonderry were 
reduced to terrible straits, as they were blockaded by land, and 
the outlet to the sea was stopped by a boom. However, by 
gi-eat exertions the boom was broken, and in July Relief of 
Londonderry was reheved, after a siege of nearly '^''^^^^^' 
four months. The same day Colonel Wolseley, with Newtown 
the men of Enniskillen, defeated a detachment of ^^tier. 
the Irish army at Newtown Butler, and expelled the rebels from 
that district. 

Schomberg, a German Protestant in William's service, now came 
over to take the command of the troops, while James' men were 
posted on the Boyne to guard the road from Bel- Battle of 
fast to Dubhn. In the summer of 1690 WHliam tue Boyne. 
came over in person ; he crossed the Boyne in the face of the foe, 
and sending a detachment higher up the river to threaten the 
enemy's rear, attacked their position in front. Though Schomberg 
was killed, the manoeuvre was completely successful. James himself 
hurried early from the field to secure his retreat to Dublin, and 
his whole army followed in disastrous rout. From Dublin James 
fled to Waterford, and sailed for France, leaving his supporters to 
their fate. 

While James was in Ireland, the French, against whom war had 
been declared in 1689, had made a great expedition against 
England. They had been met by a combined fleet Battle of 
of English and Dutch, the former under Herbert, BeacHyHead. 
Lord Torrington. Herbert was the man who had brought to 
William the invitation to come over to England, but he had now 
become lukewarm, and allowed himself to be defeated at Beachy 
Head by the French. Teignmouth was burnt; but happily the 



2 94 T^^ Stuarts, [i689- 

French then retired without doing further damage. This defeat, 
instead of disheartening the Enghsh, roused their indignation. 
Loyal offers of assistance reached Mary from all sides, and when 
William returned from Ireland he found himself more firmly seated 
on the throne than before. 

The conclusion of the Irish war was trusted to Ginkel, a Dutch- 
man, and to Churchill, now Earl of Marlborough. Marlborough 
Conclusion of subdued the south, while Ginkel, forcing the passage 
tiie Irish war. of the Shannon at Athlone, made his way into 
Connaught, and won the battle of Aughrim. Limerick was then 
besieged, and its capitulation brought the war to a conclusion. 
By this capitulation the Irish troops were allowed to retire abroad 
under the command of their own officers ; and the Boman Catholics 
were promised the enjoyment of the same privileges which they 
had had under Charles II. The Irish Protestants, however, less 
tolerant than the English government, clamoured against these 
concessions to their felloW'Subjects. William found himself obliged 
to yield; the government of Ireland was again restored to the 
Protestants, and the disabilities of the Catholics were made heavier 
than before. 

During the first years of William's reign few people thought that 

he would be able to hold his own against James and Louis, so timid 

and crafty men were desirous of standing well with 

Disaffection , , ., y,^ ' i p it 

among the both sidcs. Many, therefore, corresponded with 
nobles. james and the English exiles, not so much with an 
idea of doing anything themselves to bring James back, as in 
order to escape punishment if he happened to be successful. 
Almost all the great statesmen of the day did this, even Marl- 
borough and Shrewsbury and Russell, who had done as much as 
any one to set William on the throne. William usually knew of 
their doing bo, but was not strong enough to take much notice of it. 
In 1692, however, special attention was drawn to Marlborough's 
correspondence, and he was dismissed from all his offices. 

Since 1689 England had been at war with France. The greater 
part of the fighting took place in the Netherlands, where Louis had 

War with possessed himself of several strong fortresses, of which 

France. ^.j^g chief was Namur. William's practice was to go 

to the wars in the summer, and returnto England during the winter, 



1695.] William III, and Mary. 295 

at which time Parliament then sat. While William was abroad 
Mary ruled alone. In the spring of 1692 Louis and James collected 
a fleet at Brest, and massed a large army on the coast Louis and 
of Normandy in order to invade England. The danger ''^^^o^^^^^da '^^ 
was pressing, as in the last naval battle the French England, 
had been victorious, and the government knew that Russell, their 
admiral, had been corresponding with James. Fortunately at 
this crisis James drew up a proclamation, in which he declared that 
if he were successful he would punish a large number of persons 
of all classes. This proclamation fell into the hands of the queen, 
who at once published it with explanatory notes ; and this clever 
move roused the whole country to indignation. Russell, too, 
though he was not unfriendly to James, had no idea of allowing an 
English fleet to be beaten by a French one, and declared his intention 
to fight though James himself was on board. Consequently, when 
the EngHsh and French met off Cape La Hogue, Battle of cape 
nothing could withstand the vehemence of the English ^^ Hogue. 
attack. The French fleet was utterly destroyed, and the English 
admiral burnt the French transports which had been collected on 
the Norman coast, under the eyes of James himself. La Hogue was 
the greatest naval victory won by the English between the defeat of 
the Armada and the battle of Trafalgar. 

Unfortunately, the same year William himself was defeated at 
Steinkirk, and the next year he was again beaten at Landen. In 
these battles the English soldiers showed great courage, 
and though they had not sufficient training as yet to 
cope with the veterans of Louis, they were gaining the experience 
which enabled Marlborough to win his victories. In 1694 an expe- 
dition was sent against the French naval station at Brest; but 
it was a failure, for the English plans had been be- Treachery of 
trayed to the French by Marlborough. The French, Mariborougn. 
therefore, were prepared, and the English met with so warm a recep- 
tion that they were forced to retire with the loss of their commander, 
Talmash. This general was the best of the rising men. It is thought 
that Marlborough was jealous of him, and wished to remove him 
from his path. If he did, he was successful, for as no one knew of 
his treachery at the time, William, now that Talmash was dead, 
again employed Marlborough. In 1695 William formed the siege 



296 The Stuarts. ri693- 

of Namur, which he conducted with such skill that the place fell 
Fan of Namur '^^ ^P^*® ^^ ^ Louis' efforts ; and this great success 
Peace of made up for the failures at Steinkirk, Landen, and 
Uyswick. Brest. Two years later peace was made at Ryswick, 
by which Louis agreed to give up all the conquests he had made 
since the treaty of Nimwegen in 1678, and acknowledged Wilham 
as King of England. This treaty was the subject of great rejoicing 
in England. 

We saw that William began by forming a government from the 
members of both parties. This plan, however, did not work well, 
Party for the opinions of Whigs and Tories were so different 
government. ^(^^1^ ^j^gy could not act together. Under these cir- 
cumstances, Sunderland, the clever but unscrupulous minister of 
James II., advised William in 1693 to form a united Whig ministry 
h^ gradually weeding all the Tories out of the government. William 
took this advice, and carried it out between 1693 and 1695. In 
that year the Duke of Leeds, formerly Marquess of Carmarthen, 
was forced to give up his post, and Godolphin, who was a clever 
financier but cared little for either party, remained the only Tory in 
the government. 

William's reign was remarkable for many financial changes. In 
this department his chief advisers were Godolphin and Montague, 
The National Chancellor of the Exchequer. In 1693 Montague 
Debt. originated the National Debt. It had long been the 

practice for English kings to borrow money on their own security, 
and Parliament had often been appealed to to pay their debts. 
William's position, however, was so precarious that he would have 
had much difficulty in borrowing money, and at the same time 
it would not have been politic to levy heavy taxes. Meanwhile 
the expenses of the war were great, and Montague, therefore, devised 
the plan of borrowing money on the security of the government, 
so that the money was lent, not to the king, but to the nation, and 
was, therefore, called the National Debt. This was also useful to 
the government, in a special way, because the national creditors, 
fearing lest, if William were deposed, the debt should be repudiated, 
were eager supporters of the Revolution. 

In 1694 the Bank of England was established. It was a corpora- 
tion or company who in that year lent £1,200,000 to the govern- 



1696.] William III. and Mary, 297 

nient, at the rate of eight per cent, interest. This gave them, with 
a further sum of £4000 for management, an income ^ , ^ 

^ ' Bank of 

of £100,000 yearly. In return for the loan the com- England 
pany were also allowed to receive deposits of money 
and to issue promises to pay on demand, which were called bank- 
notes. This institution was of great advantage to the country, 
because persons who had capital felt that they could safely lend it 
to the bank, while the bank in their turn lent it out to enterprising 
people whom they could trust, and in this way trade was benefited 
and both parties were advantaged. 

The establishment of the bank still further united the mercantile 
classes in support of the government. In 1696 the country gentry 
wished to form a Land Bank, in imitation of the Bank ^ Land Bank 
of England; but, unlike the merchants, the land- projected, 
owners had very little ready money to advance, and they could not 
lend their land, so they were never able to get together sufficient 
capital to start the undertaking. Their failure, however, was a sore 
disappointment to the Tories. 

The same year that the Land Bank was projected, the government 
did a great service to the whole country by renewing the coinage. 
Latterly this had got into a bad state, partly through Renewal of 
the illegal coinage of false money, but more because *^® coinage, 
in those days money was not made as it is now, with a milled or 
serrated edge, but smooth. It was, therefore, not easy to say at 
a glance whether a little had not been cut off the edge, and so 
clipping was very common. This was bad for trade, because no 
one knew what the value of money was, and as merchants wished 
to weigh the money before they parted with their goods, business 
could not be carried on between people at a distance. It was every- 
body's interest that this should be put right, so in 1696 the govern- 
ment called in the bad coins, and gave others of the same name, 
but of the full value, to those who brought them. The nation paid 
the cost of the difference, and a great boon was conferred on trades 
of all kmds. The management of this transaction was entrusted 
to Somers the great lawyer, Locke the philosopher, Montague the 
financier, and Sir Isaac Newton the astronomer, who was made 
master of the Mint. The establishment of the National Debt and 
the Bank of England, and the renewal of the coinage, form an 



298 The Stuarts. [i696. 

epoch in the history of English commerce, and won for the govern- 
ment the good will of all who were concerned in trade. 

Until the accession of William III. the great object of Whig 
statesmen had been to obHge the king to call frequent Parliaments, 
Triennial Acts ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ Spirit that the Triennial Act had 
passed. \,QQTi. passcd by the Long Parliament. However, 
since supplies had been voted annually, and the Mutiny Act had 
to be renewed, there was no danger that Parliament would not 
meet every year. The new fear was that if the king got a House 
of Commons to his mind, he would never dissolve it, and so that for 
long periods Parliament might be out of accord with the country. 
Indeed, since the old Triennial Act had been repealed in 1664, 
Charles II. had kept one Parliament sitting for seventeen years 
without a dissolution. To prevent this, William's Parliament twice 
passed a Triennial Bill, limiting the duration of Parliament to three 
years. The first time William refused his consent, but in 1694 he 
gave it. In consequence of this Act, a general election took place 
at least once every three years. 

Ever since the Reformation the government had claimed to 
regulate the printing and publication of books, with a view to forbid 

i-ibertyof ^^^^ ^^ might be injurious either to religion or 

the press. morality, or were likely to spread seditious opinions. 
Till the meeting of the Long Parliament this duty had been 
exercised by the Archbishop of Canterbury, and persons who 
printed unlicensed books had been prosecuted in the Courts of 
Star Chamber and High Commission. After the dissolution of those 
courts, the press for a short time was free ; but the Long Parlia- 
ment itself, alarmed by the flood of pamphlets which inundated the 
country, again obliged books to be licensed, in spite of the pro- 
testations in favour of liberty of the press which were addressed to 
it by Milton in his " Areopagitica." At the Restoration a Licensing 
Act was passed, by which the whole control of printing was vested 
in the government, and printing was only allowed at London, York, 
and the Universities. This Act was renewed for a term of years 
from time to time, but in 1695 it expired, and Parliament refused 
to renew it. Since that year there has been complete liberty to 
publish, but libels have, of course, been liable to prosecution as 
any other criminal offence. 



1696.] William III, 299 

During tiie whole reign there were a series of plots. As early 
as 1691, Viscount Preston, a Roman Catholic, was ^, ^ . ^ 

' ' Plots against 

convicted of treasonable practices. So long as the 

Mary lived, her popularity was William's security, sovemmen . 
Most unhappily, she died of small-pox in 1694, and this terrible loss 
— 'for William had learned to know her worth — not 
only cast a gloom over his whole life, but also made 
him much more liable to assassination, for his single life might be 
thought to stand in the way of a restoration. From that time forward 
he was in constant danger. In 1696 a plot was arranged by Sir 
G-eorge Barclay to murder him on his return from 
hunting, in a lane near Bichmond, There is little 
doubt that James himself was in the secret, for a large French 
army was ready on the French shore to cross the Channel as soon 
as word of William's death was brought. Fortunately the govern- 
ment heard of the plot, and arrested the conspirators. So great was 
the indignation of the whole country at this infamous plan, that 
an association was formed to avenge William's death in case of 
his murder, and to support the succession of Anne. The share the 
French had in the attempt determined Parliament to continue the 
war, whatever happened. 

Just before the conspiracy was detected. Parliament had passed 
an important act regulating trials for treason. Up to this time the 
conduct of these trials had given every assistance . ^ 

° '' Act reg-ulatme 

to the government, and put the accused at a great trials for 
disadvantage. Till the trial began he was neither 
informed of the names of the jury, nor of the exact charge which 
was to be brought against him, and witnesses for the defence 
were not allowed to be examined on oath. By the new act 
the prisoner was to have a copy of the indictment and a list of 
the jury five days before the trial, and his witnesses were to be 
examined on oath, By the law of Edward VI, two witnesses were 
necessary for conviction, but the safeguard conveyed by this rule 
had been narrowed by the crown lawyers to such an extent, that 
Algernon Sidney was convicted on the evidence of one witness, and 
the testimony afforded by some unpublished papers found in his desk. 
By the new law two witnesses were required to one open act, or one 
to one and another to another open act of the same kind of treation. 



300 The Stuarts, [i697- 

This law, while it secured the safety of innocent men, un- 
doubtedly made it harder to convict the guilty. Indeed, it was 

The case of Satirically said that the object of the act was to make 

Fenwick. treason as safe as possible ; and in the case of Sir 
John Fenwick, who was tried in 1697, a guilty man nearly escaped 
through its provisions. Lady Fenwick contrived to convey out 
of the country one of the two witnesses against him ; but Par- 
liament was not willing to allow justice to be foiled in this way, 
BO, as in the case of StralBford, a bill of attainder was substituted 
for a prosecution at law, and by that process Fenwick was put 
to death for high treason. 

One advantage only came to William from Mary's death. Marl- 
borouo;h became his devoted friend: for now that 
becomes the Mary was gone, Anne was certam to succeed, and 
kingsfrieud. ^^^^ Anne, Marlborough's wife had at this time un- 
bounded influence, so that he saw in her accession the prospect of 
unfettered power. 

The peace of Eyswick, which terminated the war in 1697, had a 

great effect upon William's position, for it removed all fear of a 

Party French invasion. Next year, 1698, a general election 

struggles. took place, and a majority of Tories was returned. 
These men had little sympathy with William ; they were smarting 
under taxation which had fallen very heavily on the landed gentry, 
who had not shared with the mercantile classes the recent com- 
mercial advantages which the government had secured. Moreover, 
they did not share William's view that it was needful to be on the 
watch against the ambition of Louis XIV. Accordingly, on the 
conclusion of peace, Parliament at once reduced the army to ten 
thousand men, and in 1699, much to William's disgust, the Dutch 
guards, his favourite soldiers, were sent home. At the same time, 
attacks were made upon the way in which William had granted to 
his Dutch favourites the property which had been forfeited by the 
Irish rebels. William had formerly dismissed his Tory advisers, 
in order that his ministry might agree with a Whig Parliament; 
he now recalled the Tories to power. Shrewsbury, Montague, 
Russell, and Somers were dismissed ; and in 1700 Rochester and 
Godolphin entered the Cabinet. 

Meanwhile the question of the succession had again become 



1701.] William III. 3^1 

unsettled. Anne had had nineteen children ; but of these the last, 
the Duke of Gloucester, died in 1700, and as the Tiie question 
succession of her line, which had been reckoned upon ^^ succession. 
in 1688, had now failed, it became necessary to make a new 
arrangement. James' reliance on France and his unlucky pro- 
clamation had done nothing to win him favour; so in 1701 the 
Parhament, though Tory, passed the Act of Settlement, ii^e Act of 
sometimes called the Succession Act, by which the settlement. 
Electress Sophia, wife of the Elector of Hanover, and daughter of 
Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia, daughter of James I., was recognized 
as Anne's successor. There were other descendants of James I. 
who stood nearer to the throne than Sophia, but they were all 
rejected as Roman Catholics, so that Parliament really chose the 
fittest person in the royal family, just as the old Witenagemot used 
to do in the days before the Norman Conquest. 

In the Act of Settlement several provisions were inserted which 
had been omitted from the Bill of Rights. By a most important 
clause, it was enacted that the judges were to be ^^^ provision 
appointed for life, and were to receive fixed salaries, inserted in 
and that they could not be removed except on con- 
viction of some offence, or on an address to the king by both Houses 
of Parliament. This excellent arrangement continues to this day, 
and has completely secured the judges from any suspicion of 
subservience to the policy of the crown. 

Though the Tories had passed the Act of Settlement, they were 
not less hostile to William's Whig policy, and in 1701 they 
impeached the Whig ex-ministers for their share in nie partition 
the partition treaties. These treaties were the out- treaties, 
come of a European difficulty. The King of Spain was in poor 
health, and had no direct heir. One of his sisters, Maria Theresa, 
had married Louis XIV. ; another, Margaret, married the Emperor 
Leopold I. Moreover, his aunt Maria was herself the mother of 
Leopold. It was doubtful whether Maria Theresa, Margaret, or 
Maria was the true heir of Charles. The claims of these three 
Princesses were represented respectively by their grandchildren, 
Philip of France, Joseph, Electoral Prince of Bavaria, and the 
Archduke Charles of Austria. (See note, p. 302.) 



362 



The Stuarts. titol 



The question was very important, for in Europe the Spanish king 

possessed Spain, the Netherlands, the kingdom of Naples and 

Sicily, and the duchy of Milan ; in the New World) 

the spanisii large dominions in America, such as Mexico, Peru, 
succession. ^^^^^ ^^^ q^^^ . ^^^ ^^ ^.j^^ ^^^^^ ^f ^gj^^ ^j^g 

t^hilippine Islands. If the French prince succeeded, it was thought 
that overwhelming power would be given to France, both in Europe 
and in the colonies. If the Austrian were chosen, overwhelming 
power would be given in Europe to the Austrians. England dreaded 
most the union of the French and Spanish colonies; William 
himself feared the aggrandizement of France in Europe. 

Under the circumstances a compromise was agreed on, and the 

largest share was given to the electoral prince,* whom no one 

The Partition fe^^^ed. Ilnfortunately he died in 1699, and then a 

Treaties. j^ew partition was made between the Austrian and 
^French claimants, William securing Spain, the Netherlands, and 
the colonies, for the Austrians, which suited the views of both the 
English and the Dutch. These arrangements were prudent; but 
the English Tories disliked England's meddling on the Continent, 
as they were jealous of increasing the standing army, and did not 
care for the mercantile motives which actuated the Whigs. They 
therefore impeached Russell, Somers, and Montague, the leading 
Whigs, and Bentinck, the king's most intimate friend, for their 
share in the transaction i They even asked the king to dismiss 
them from his councils before they had been found guilty. This 
outrageous demand disgusted the country, and when the Commons, 

* THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 
Philip lir., King of Spain, d. 1621. 



iPhilip IV., d. 1665. Maria, = Emperor 



Charles II., Maria {\) Margaret, = Leopold I., = (2) Princess 

d. 1670. Theresa, = Louis XIV. | of Neuburg, 

I Electress of 

Louis, dauphin. Bavaria. 

J. I 

Philip Joseph, Archduke 

(2nd son). Electoral Charles. 

Prince. 



1702.] William III. 303 

feeling their mistake, did not appear to prosecute Somers, the 
Lords declared him acquitted, and the other prosecutions dropped. 

Before this time the danger which the partition treaties were 
intended to remove had come to pass. In 1700 Charles of Spain died. 
The Spaniards had not been consulted in the partition treaties, and 
they naturally wished their dominions, of which they were proud, to 
be kept together. Accordingly, at Charles' death, they offered the 
crown to Louis XIV.'s grandson Philip. On his behalf The French 
it was accepted, Louis remarking that " the Pyrenees ^"Je^crown*^ 
had ceased to exist." When Louis poured his troops of Spain, 
into the Spanish Netherlands the Dutch were alarmed, but the 
English Tories would not fight for such a remote objects The 
whole scene was, however, changed by the death of James II* 
Louis, in spite of the treaty of Ryswick, recognized i,ouis 

his son as James III. This act of defiance roused recognizes 
Whigs and Tories alike. William saw that the tide as King of 
had turned, dissolved Parliament, and the nation England, 
answered his call by electing Whig members, pledged to support 
the principles of the Revolution and the Act of Settlement. 

William instantly dismissed his Tory ministers, and prepared for 
war. Parliament readily voted supplies, and, to secure the 
Protestant succession, imposed an oath to uphold it on all who 
held employment in Church and State. All Europe was arming, 
and William saw himself about to fulfil the dream of his life by 
leading a victorious army to the invasion of France, when a 
fall from his horse broke his collar-bone. Such a slight accident 
would have been nothing to a strong man, but to one worn with 
anxiety and work it was fatal, and in a few days the Death of 
king died. William was a great king, but not a WiUiam. 
popular one. His manners never won him the affection of the 
nation, and his far-reaching schemes were appreciated only by a 
few. In attempting to rule with a free Parliament, he had a difficult 
game to play, and though a minute examination can find many 
things to cavil at both in his private life and in his political career, 
he has the glory of having brought England safely through a great 
crisis, and also of being the first sovereign to work successfully a 
Parliamentary government, in the modern sense of that term. 



CHAPTER VII. 

An:ne, 1702-1714 (12 years). 
Bom 1665; married, 1683, Prince George of Denmark. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — The Duke and Duchess of Marlborough ; 
Godolphin; Rochester; Nottingham; Prince Eugene ; Harley, created 
Earl of Oxford ; St. John, created Viscount Bolingbroke ; Charles 
Spencer, Earl of Sunderland ; Sir Robert Walpole ; Charles Mordaunt, 
Earl of Peterborough ; General, afterward Earl Stanhope ; Abigail 
Hill ; Dr. Sacheverell ; the Dukes of Shrewsbury, Argyll, and Somerset, 

Chief Contemporary Sovereigns. 
France. Spain. 

Louis XIV., 1643-1715. Philip and Charles (rivals). 

William's successor, Anne, was a very different sovereign. 
William had towered head and shoulders above most of the states- 
character of nien of his time ; he had been his own minister of 
Anne. foreign affairs and his own commander-in-chief, and 
his wishes had been the principal influence in the policy of England 
both at home and abroad. Anne, on the other hand, took her ideas 
from others, and had long been under the guidance of her imperious 
friend, Marlborough's wife. It was Marlborough, therefore, and not 
Anne, who really became the ruler of England, and for a long time 
he Was the guiding spirit both at home and abroad. 

By inchnation Marlborough was a Tory, and he gave the chief places 
in the government to Tories. He himself was commander-in-chief. 
War declared Nottingham was Secretary of State, and Godolphin 
against France, ^^g ^qj.^ Treasurer. In pursuance of William's plan, 
war was at once declared against iVance, and England enteted the 
field as the supporter of Charles of Austria, who claimed the crown 
of Spain in opposition to Philip of France, the grandson of Louis 
XIV. The war was carried on both in Spain itself and in the 
Netherlands. Louis had overrun the Netherlands with his troops, 



1706.] 



Anne. 



305 



and Marlborough passed over to Holland with English troops to 
help the Dutch to drive them out. Many of the small states of 
Germany were on the side of Austria, and were fighting the French 
on the Rhine, while the Prince Eugene of Savoy was helping the 
Austrians to prevent the French from seizing Milan. There may be 
said, therefore, to have been four seats of war. 

In 1702 Marlborough's great exploit was to capture Li^ge, for 
which he was made a Duke and received a pension of £5,000 a 
year. In 1703 he made himself master of the lower course of the 
Rhine, on which Bonn is the chief fortress, and ,^ ,^ 

' . , ' Marlboroug-h a 

thus secured his communications with his allies on operations 
the Rhine. The next year, 1704, the Elector of ^ ^°^ ' 
Bavaria joined the French, who sent a large army, under Tallard, 
with orders to unite with his forces, and then to terminate the war 




BATTLE OF BLENHEIM. 



by capturing Vienna itself. Marlborough, however, divined their 
plan, and leaving a strong force to watch the Netherlands, he 
marched with a mixed army of Englishmen and Dutchmen up 
the Rhine, and joining the Imperial army, under the Margrave of 
Baden, destroyed the Bavarian forces near Donauwerth. He was 
then joined by Prince Eugene. The two became firm friends, 
and they immediately advanced against Tallard. 

That general and the Elector of Bavaria drew up their forces at 



3o6 The Stuarts. [1706. 

Blenheim, on the Danube. Their line was at right angles to the 
Battle of river, on which their right, posted in the village of 
Bienheiin. Blenheim, rested ; their front was defended by a small 
stream. Tallard commanded the centre and right; the Elector and 
the French Marshal Marsin led the left. Marlborough threw the 
bulk of his force against the French centre and left, and beat 
them, and then passing to the rear of Blenheim cut off" the troops 
there from their friends, and forced them to surrender. Tallard 
himself was captured, and the French army was thoroughly ruined. 
The victory of Blenheim saved Vienna and the cause of the allies, 
and the English were so proud of the success and so thankful for 
their relief, that Parliament asked the queen to give Marlborough 
the estate of Woodstock, near Oxford, and a pension for himself 
and his descendants. Had Marlborough been beaten at Blenheim, 
Vienna would almost certainly have been taken; England would 
have been invaded, and probably the line of James II, restored. The 
Capture of Same year Sir George Eooke and Sir Cloudesley Shovel 
Gibraltar. captured Gibraltar, the fortified rock which guards the 
narrow straits which unite the Atlantic and the Mediterranean — a for- 
tress which has increased in value to England from that day to this. 
In 1705 Marlborough was able to take the offensive against the 
Mariboroug-ii French, who had tried to guard the Netherlands by 
o^n^sive Constructing a series of defences from Antwerp to 
ag-ainst the Namur. Marlborough, however, cleverly made his 
Battle of ^^y through, and the next year, 1706, he again 
Bamimes. defeated the French at the battle of Eamillies. 
In this battle, as at Blenheim, the French army occupied a strong 
position. Their line was formed like a crescent along some rising 
ground, their left being defended by a marsh. Marlborougii, how- 
ever, recognizing that, if he could not get across the marsh, neither 
could the French, concentrated the mass of his forces for an attack 
on the French right ; and, having the shorter distance to march, he 
was thus superior at the point of attack, and succeeded in taking 
from the French the highest point in their position, called the 
Mound of Ottomond, from which his cannon could sweep the whole 
of the French hues. The French were forced to retreat precipitately, 
and as Marlborough was now in a position to take in the rear all 
the French troops who were further than he was from the French 



1706. ] 



Anne. 



307 



frontier, they were obliged to evacuate Brussels, Antwerp, and 
Ghent, and confine themselves to defending the frontier towns, of 
which the chief were Lille, Tournay, Mons, and Namur. 

In 1707 there was no great battle; but in 1708 Marlborough and 




French 

Efiglish /** Position 



'"x^ Mai shy Gi ound 



BATTLE OF KAMILLIES, MAX, 1706. 

Prince Eugene beat the French, under Vendome, at Oudenarde, and 
took the great town of Lille. The next year Tournay Battle of 
fell, and the same year the aUies formed the siege of Oudenarde. 
Mons. Villars alone among the great French leaders had not been 
defeated, and he with a large force advanced to raise Battle of 
the siege. Marlborough met him at Malplaquet. ^aipiaquet. 
The slaughter was dreadful. The French were fighting behind 



3o8 The Stuarts, ti7io. 

earthworks and fallen trees, but in the end they were forced to 
retire, and Mons at once capitulated. Lille, Tournay, and Mons 
were now in the hands of the aUies, and the road to France was open. 
Meanwhile in Spain fortune had been very fickle. The English 
leaders there were Charles Mordaunt, Earl of Peterborough, an 
The war erratic but able man, celebrated for the recklessness 
in Spain. g^nd rapidity of his movements, and General Stan- 
hope. In 1705 the allies captured Barcelona, and in 1706 Galway, 
a French refugee general, with an army of allies, captured Madrid, 
while Peterborough successfully defended Barcelona ; but in 1708 
the allies were beaten at Almanza by the Duke of Berwick, a 
natural son of James II., and nephew of the Duke of Marlborough, 
Capture of ^-^d Madrid was recaptured. However, the same 
Minorca. yg^j. General Stanhope took Minorca, one of the 
Balearic Isles. In Italy, on the whole, the French had the better, 
but there seemed little chance of decisive success. 

Under these circumstances, in 1710 negotiations were entered 

into at Gertruydenberg. Louis was willing to give up the claims of 

Ineffectual ^i^ grandson, but the allies actually asked him to agree 

negotiation, ^q \^^^^ them in expelling him from Spain, and to 

this the French king would not consent. Accordingly the war went 

on, and that year Marlborough crossed the frontier and captured 

Capture of i Douay, a fortress on French soil. In Spain, Stanhope 

Douay. ^qj^ ^]^q battles of Almenara and Saragossa over the 

Ai^^nara^nd Spaniards ; but, by a turn of fortune, before the close 

Saragossa. of the year he was himself defeated and captured 

by Vendome at Brihuega. 

Pursuing the policy of Cromwell and Charles II., the English 

fleet throughout the war had been attacking the French colonies, 

and, besides annexing Gibraltar and Minorca, we also 

land towards sccured Newfoundland, and captured the French 

the colonies, g^ttlement of Acadie, which is now called Nova Scotia. 

An attack was also made upon Canada, but it was not successful. 

We must now return for a time to affairs at home. Marlborough 
Change in the had, as we saw, formed a mixed ministry, but he soon 
^^ aXSra-^^ found that on the Whigs alone could he rely for ener- 
tion. getic support in the war policy ; so he first of all re- 

placed the strong Tory, Nottingham, by the moderate Tories, Harley 



1702.] Anne. 309 

and St. John. In 1706 Sunderland, a strong Whig, son of James II.'s 
minister, and son-in-law of Marlborough, was made Secretary of 
State. In 1708 even the moderate Tories, Harley and St. John, 
left the ministry, and Kobert Walpole, afterwards the famous Prime 
Minister, joined it. In this way the whole character of the adminis- 
tration was gradually changed. 

The great event of this period was the Union between England 
and Scotland. Since the accession of James I., the two countries, 
except for a short time under Cromwell, had had sepa- xjnion of 
rate Parliaments, and had, in fact, been independent England and 
of each other. This arrangement had not worked 
well, and both countries had something to complain of. The chief 
grievance of the Scots was, that by the terms of the navigation 
laws they were not allowed to trade with the English colonies ; on 
the other hand, the English were afraid that the Scots, by not 
accepting the Act of Settlement, might at Anne's death separate 
the two crowns. The Scots, too, feared that if the two countries 
were united, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland might suffer, and 
that the laws and customs of their country might be altered. They 
also feared that they would have to raise additional taxes to pay off 
the English National Debt. At Anne's accession the Scots were 
smarting under the failure of the Darien scheme. In 

^ _ ^ Failure of 

1699 a body of Scottish colonists had been sent out tiie Darien 
to occupy the Isthm^us of Darien. As the Spaniards 
claimed the soil on which it was planted, and saw that the colony 
could only be formed to trade, contrary to Spanish law, with the 
Spanish colonies, they were naturally hostile. The climate was 
unhealthy, and the Scots had not the resources to make their station 
a commercial mart. The scheme failed, and the greater part of 
the settlers perished miserably. The Scots threw the blame on 
England, and their rising hostility began to be very threatening. 

William saw clearly that the true remedy lay in the union of the 
two Parliaments and the opening of all trade to both countries, and 
his dying suggestion was that commissioners should Trr-m 
meet to settle the terms of union. Commissioners, suggestion for 
accordingly, met in 1702, but no agreement was 
come to. The Scots were still more annoyed, and in 1703 the 
Scottish Parliament resolved that Presbyterianism was the only 



310 The Stuarts. [1707- 

true Cliurcli of Clirist in the kingdom, and passed a Bill of Security, 
Attitude of reserving to the Scottish Parhament the right of re- 

the Scots. fusing to acknowledge the successor to the throne 
named by England. At the same time they transferred the right 
of nominating the great officers of State from the Crown to 
Parliament. This attitude of the Scots made war probable, so it 
was met by an act of the English Parliament, introduced by the 
Whig, Somers, by which it was declared that after Christmas, 1705, 
Preparations all Scotchmen were to be regarded as aliens. All 

for war. importation of Scottish goods to England was pro- 
hibited, and orders were given to re-fortify the border towns. 

It was now clear that England was in earnest, and the com- 
missioners again met. The chief difficulties concerned the Church, 

Terms of the law, and the taxes. On all these points England 
^^^°^' gave way, and the Umon was completed in 1707. 
The Established Church of Scotland, and the Scottish laws and 
judicial procedure, were secured. To equalize the burdens of the 
two nations, England paid Scotland £398,000, which was to be used 
to pay off the Scottish national debt and indemnify the shareholders 
of the Darien company. The commercial advantages of England 
were thrown open to the Scots without reserve. The Scots were not 
to be liable to any taxes which had already been voted by the English 
Parliament. It was arranged, on the other hand, that the title of the 
United Kingdom was to be Great Britain. The Scots were to have 
no separate Parliament, but forty-five members for Scotland were 
to sit in the House of Commons, and sixteen peers, chosen at each 
general election to represent the peers of Scotland, were to sit in the 
House of Lords. No new Scottish peers were to be created. 

At first the Union was most unpopular in Scotland. Both 
countries, however, gained by the Union. England was relieved 

Result of from a great danger ; and while Scottish susceptibili- 
tiie union. j.jgg ^^ matters of religion and law were fully con- 
sidered, the advantage which she gained by being allowed to trade 
with the English colonies was well worth a small sacrifice of senti- 
ment. The Union made the fortune of Scotland. The rapid growth 
of Glasgow and of the manufacturing industries of the Lowlands bear 
testimony to her improved fortune, while in recent years the 
popularity of Highland scenery which now attracts thousands of 



1710.] Anne. 311 

Englisli visitors yearly, and the residence of the court at Balmoral, 
have drawn close the bonds of sympathy between the two nations. 

The year after the Union the discontent of the Scots encouraged 
the French to make an attempt to stir up a Jacobite rebellion in 
Scotland: but the watchfulness of the English cruisers „ 

' ° ^ French. 

prevented the French troops from landing, while the expedition to 

absence of the Pretender, who was prevented from 

sailing by an attack of measles, deprived the expedition of its best 

chance of success. 

In spite, however, of these great achievements, Marlborough's 

ministry tost popularity. At first the Whigs gained "Unpopularity 

power, but gradually the long war tired the patience torougii's 

of the nation. There was, however, little chance of ministry. 

displacing them as long as they retained their influence with the 

queen ; but Harley and St. John, who since their dismissal m 1708 

had been the leaders of the opposition, had contrived to replace the 

Duchess of Marlborough in the queen's affection by Mrs. Abigail 

Hill, a cousin both of Harley and of the duchess, a Tory and 

High Churchwoman. Still the ministry, strong in the support of the 

commercial and middle classes, held its own; but in ^ 

' ' Prosecution 

1710 they made a great mistake in prosecuting Dr. of Dr. 

Sacheverell, a strong Tory, who had attacked the 
government in a sermon preached on " perils amongst false brethren." 
In this he assaulted the ministry as enemies of the Church. This 
prosecution made Sacheverell the martyr of the High Church 
party, and forty thousand copies of his sermon were sold. A great 
reaction took place in favour of the Tories, Anne „ ^. , 

^ ' Reaction in 

herself attended the trial, and her coach was favourof 
surrounded by the mob, shouting, " We hope your 
majesty is for High Church and Dr. Sacheverell." Anne seized 
the turn of the tide to dismiss her ministers, and replace them 
by Tories, under the lead of Harley and St. John. Shrewsbury 
became Secretary of State, and Ormond Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. 
Marlborough alone was still retained in the command of the army. 

In 1711, however, the ministry, taking advantage of the indigna- 
tion caused by the attempt of a Frenchman, named vindictiveness 
Guiscard, to assassinate Harley, ventured to dismiss towards thefr 
the Duchess of Marlborough, and then to deprive opponents. 



312 The Stuarts. 



[1713. 



tlie Duke himself of all his offices. Every effort was made to 
convict the duke of peculation. It was well known that he was 
fond of money, and that he had made large sums through per- 
centages from the moneys that had passed through his hands as 
commander-in-chief; but he successfully showed that he had done 
nothing which was hregular, and the crimmal prosecution had to be 
dropped. At the same time Eobert Walpole, who had supported 
Marlborough as Secretary at War, was impeached for peculation, and, 
though his guilt was doubtful, was sent to the Tower. This vindictive 
attack on their opponents only alienated from the Tories those fair- 
minded people who had formerly been disgusted by the prosecution 
of Dr. Sacheverell. 

The first object of the new ministry was the conclusion of peace 
^th France. In this they were opposed by the Whigs and by 

The Tory the Earl of Nottingham, who, though a Tory, now 
policy. acted with the opposition. As the price of Notting- 
ham's aid, the Whigs agreed not to oppose the Occasional Con- 
formity Bill which the high Tories had long advocated. By the 
Test and Corporation Act no one could be a member of a corpora- 
tion, or hold a civil or miKtary office under the crown, unless 
he had taken the Sacrament according to the English form. 
Many Nonconformists had no objection to do this once, and then 
attended their own chapels as usual. This practice was called 
Occasional Conformity. The Tory majority in Anne's first House 
of Commons had three times passed a bill to prevent it, but on each 
occasion the bill was thrown out by the Whig majority in the Peers. 
It was now brought forward again, and passed both Houses without 
opposition in 1711. 

At the close of the year, as the Whigs and Nottingham had a 
majority in the House of Lords, Anne, by Harley's advice, created 

Creation of twclvc new Tory peers. This act smoothed the way 

new peers. ^^ ^j^^ government to the conclusion of peace, but 
the step naturally created great indignation among the Whig Peers. 
One of these. Lord Wharton, jestiDgly asked the new comers 
whether "they voted smgly or through their foreman," as though 
they had been a jury. 

Marlborough's place as commander-in-chief was taken by Ormond, 
but no further movements were attempted, and in 1713 the 



1713.1 Anne. 313 

war was brought to a conclusion by the Peace of Utrecht. 
This peace was a compromise. The Archduke had Peace of 
become Emperor in 1711, so that his accession would ftrecht. 
have been even more dangerous than that of Philip. Philip of 
France, therefore, was made King of Spain ; on the other hand, it 
was stipulated that the crowns of France and Spain should never 
be united. Austria received the Netherlands, so that their line of 
fortresses, which were to be partly garrisoned by Dutch troops, 
might be a barrier between France and Holland. To Austria also 
went Milan, Naples, and Sardinia. Sicily was given to Savoy. In 
Europe, England kept Gibraltar and Minorca. In the New World 
the Spanish colonies were kept by Spain, but England received the 
valuable monopoly of the slave trade, and the right of sending one 
shij) a year to trade with the Spanish colonies. England also kept 
Acadie (now caUed Nova Scotia) and the Island of St. Christopher 
in the West Indies. Her right to Newfoundland and to the 
Hudson's Bay territory was also secured. Louis agreed to ac- 
knowledge the Protestant succession. To these terms Austria and 
Holland gave their consent. The treaty of Utrecht was thought 
at the time not to be worthy of England's acceptance, and we 
behaved badly in not getting better terms for the Spaniards who 
had fought for Charles and for the Austrians and Dutch. Notting- 
ham and the Whigs did all they could to oppose its conclusion, but 
the votes of the twelve new peers carried the day for the court. 
On the whole the advantages gained by England itself were very real. 
Having settled this important matter, the Tory leaders had time 
to consider the policy of the future. Anne's death could not be 
long delayed, and it became a question whether they „ 
should support the succession of Sophia, or try to of the 

bring back the Pretender. There was very little en- 
thusiasm in the country for either claimant ; so it was quite possible 
that a determined ministry might turn the scale. It has never 
been quite ascertained what the policy of the ministry was. The 
two leaders, Viscount Bolingbroke (formerly St. John) Dissensions in 
and the Earl of Oxford (formerly Harley), were not the ministry, 
agreed. The latter was constitutionally timid and fond of com- 
promise ; the former was bold and enterprising. Possibly all Boling- 
broke wished, was to make a Tory government necessary to the House 



3H 



The Stuarts, ti7i4. 



of Hanover. Whatever was their ultimate intention, the ministry- 
worked hard to secure the ascendency of the Tories. They made 
Ormond warden of the Cinque Ports, which commanded the south 
coast, and they dismissed many officers who were known to be 
devoted to Marlborough. These steps naturally roused the Hano- 
verian party, and a motion was made in Parliament to ask the 
electoral prince, Sophia's grandson, who was afterwards George H. 
to come over and represent his family in England. Bolingbroke 
then made a bold push to win the Tories by introducing fresh legis- 
lation against the Dissenters. This was the Schism Act, by which 
no one was allowed to keep a public or private school unless he was 
a member of the Church of England, and licensed by the bishop 
of the diocese. This intolerant measure was passed, in spite of the 
eloquent protest of thirty- three peers ; but it wrecked the ministry. 
By birth and education Oxford was a Nonconformist, and he had 
no sympathy with such an action; and Bolingbroke, finding him 
hesitate, had him dismissed from the office of Lord Treasurer. 

It now seemed as if Bolingbroke would have it aU his own way ; 

but within a few days Anne became dangerously ill. In this crisis 

_ the Dukes of Shrewsbury, Argyll, and Somerset acted 

verian sue- together. Shrewsbury, who had as a young man called 
cession secured. .^ ^ini^m of Orange, was, by then- request, made 
Lord Treasurer. This move destroyed Bolingbroke's power, and 
secured the Protestant succession. Oxford had been dismissed on 
July 27 ; on the 29th Shrewsbury took office ; on August 1 Anne 
died. The country was thus taken by surprise. If the Tories had 
prepared any plans, they had had no time to put them into execu- 
tion ; and immediately the queen was dead, the Whig lords, with 
Shrewsbury at their head, carried into effect the arrangements 
which had been prepared to secure the succession of the Protestant 
heir. Sophia herself had died two months before her cousin; so 
the successor was her son George, Elector of Hanover, who was 
proclaimed King of England as George I. 



Anne, 315 



CHIEF WARS, BATTLES, SIEGES, AND TREATIES OF 
THE STUART PERIOD. 

(For Battles of the Civil War, see p. 263.) 

Expedition to the Isle of Rhe 1627 

Battle of Newburn 1640 

First war with the Dutch 1652-1654 

Jamaica taken from the Spaniards 1655 

Battle of the Dunes 1658 

Second war with the Dutch 1665-1667 

Treaty of Dover 1670 

Third war with the Dutch 1672-1674 

Battle of Sedgemoor 1685 

War with the French 1689-1697 

Battle of Killiecrankie 1689 

Siege of Londonderry 

Battle of Beachy Head 1690 

„ the Boyne ... 

„ Aughrim 1691 

„ LaHogue 1692 

„ Steinkirk ... ..; ... ... ... 

„ Landen 1693 

Namur taken 1695 

Peace of Ryswick 1697 

War with the French 1702-1713 

Battle of Blenheim 1704 

Capture of Gibraltar 

Battle of Ramillies 1706 

„ Oudenarde 1708 

,, Malplaquet , 1709 

Treaty of Utrecht 1713 



3i6 The Stuarts, 



CHIEF GENERAL EVENTS OF THE STUART PERIOD. 

The Gunpowder Plot 1605 

Execution of Sir Walter Raleigh 1618 

Thirty Years' War begins in Germany 

Impeachment revived 1621 

Petition of Right 1628 

Meeting of the Short Parliament 1640 

Meeting of the Long Parliament November 3, 

First Civil War begins 1642 

Second Civil War begins 1648 

Execution of Charles I. 1649 

Oliver Cromwell becomes Protector 1653 

Restoration of Charles II 1660 

Cabal Ministry 1667-1678 

Exclusion Bill proposed 1679 

Habeas Corpus Act passed ... — — 

Revolution 1688 

Xational Debt established 1693 

Bank of England founded 1694 

Union of England and Scotland 1707 



BOOK VIII 

THE HOUSE OF HANOVEB 



THE KINGS OF FRANCE SINCE 1714. 

Louis XIII., 
1609-1643. 



Louis XIV., 

1643-1715. 

Louis (dauphin), 
d. 1711. 



Louis, 

Duke of Burgundy, 

d. 1712. 

Louis XV., 

1715-1774. 

Louis (dauphin), 
d. 1765. 



Philip, Kinj; of Spain, 
d. 1746. 



Philip, 

Duke of Orleans, 

d. 1710. 

I 

Philip (Regent), 
d. 1723, 

great-great-grand- 
father of 



Ferdinand 
of Spain. 



Charles, 
King of Naples, 



Louis XVI., Louis XVIII., Charles X., Louis Philippe, 

1774-1793. 1815-1825. 1825-1830, 1830-1848. 

I abdicated. | 

Louis XVIL, Grandfather 

never reigned, of the Count 

d. 1795. de Chambord, 

who died 
without children, | 

1884. Count de 



Duke of Duke 
Orleans, d'Aumale 
d. 1842. 



Paris. 



THE HOUSE OF STUART. 

James II., 

1685-1688, d. 1701. 

James IIL 

(the Old Pretender), 

d. 1765. 



Charles Edward 

(the Young Pretender), 

d. 1788. 



Henry, Cardinal, 
d. 1807. 



THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. 

George I., 

1714-1727. 



George II., Sophia = Frederick William, 
1727-1760. I King of Prussia. 



Frederick the Great. 



Frederick, = Augusta 



Prince of Wales, 
d. 1761. 



of Saxe-Gotha. 



William, 

Duke of Cumberland, 

d. 1765. 



George III., = Sophia Charlotte 
1760-1820. I of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. 



George IV.» = Caroline 
1 820-1 8J7; of 



Princess 

Charlotte, 

d. 1817. 



Brunswick. 



Frederick, 'Williani IV., Edward, 

Duke of 1830-1837. Duke of 

York, — = Kent, 

d. 1827. d. 1820. 



Victoria = 

1837- 



Albert 

of Saxe-Coburg, 

d. 1861. 



Princess Royal = Crown Albert Edward, Duke of Duke of 

Prince of Prince of Wales. Edinburgh. Connaught, 
Prussia. I 



Albert Victor Edward George, 



CHAPTER I. 

George I., 1714-1727 (13 years). 
Born 1660; married, 1682, Sophia of Brunswick. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — Viscount Townsliend ; Sir Robert "Walpole ; 
Earl Stanhope ; Sunderland ; the Earl of Mar ; the Duke of Argyll ; 
Forster ; Aislabie ; Bolingbroke ; Atterburj'- ; Lord Carteret ; Joseph 
Addison ; Dean Swift ; Pulteney. 

Chief Contemporary Sovereigns. 
France. Sweden. Spain. 

Louis XIV., d. 1715. Charles XIL, d. 1718. Philip V., d. 1746. 
Louis XV., d. 1774. 

Till the arrival of the new king, the government was carried on 

by the seven great officers of State, and eighteen " Lords Justices." 

ciiaracteristics In September, George himself arrived in England. 

of George I. rpj^^ ^^^ j^j^^g j^^^^ many excellent qualities. He was 

diligent and business-like, kind to his friends and forgiving towards 
his enemies, and he was universally regretted by the inhabitants ot 
Hanover. But he was not likely to be a very popular king, for his 
merits made little show, while his failings were easily seen. He 
was fifty-four years of age, and therefore not likely to exchange the 
habits of Germany for those of England ; and he was not able to 
speak English. As was also natural, he cared more for his old 
subjects than he did for his new ones. But, when this has been 
said, the worst has been told ; and George had one great merit 
which in the eyes of Englishmen ought to outweigh all defects. 
He thoroughly trusted his ministers, and though he often wished 
to have his own way in Hanover, he allowed them to do what they 
thought best in England. Such a king was exactly what England 
wanted ; for, under George's unostentatious rule, the system of party 
government which we have seen growing up during the last two 
reigns took root and became a recognized principle of the English 
constitution. 



1716.] George I. 321 

Unlike William and Marlborough, George made no attempt to 
form a mixed ministry, but at once gave his confidence to the 
Whigs ; and Townshend, Stanhope, and Walpole The "Whig 
became the leaders of a new administration. Towns- inmistry. 
hend was a conscientious but not a brilliant statesman, who had 
good business qualities, and had distinguished himself as a negotiator. 
Stanhope had been chiefly known as a general in Spain, where he 
had been most popular. It is related that he always said " Come 
on," and not " Go on," to his men. At home he had taken a 
leading part in the prosecution of Sacheverell. Walpole had dis- 
tinguished himself as Secretary at War, and his prosecution in 1711 
had raised him into the front rank among the Whig leaders. 

The question at once arose. What was to be done with the leaders 

of the late nn'nistry, who were accused by the Whigs of having 

sacrificed English interests by the treaty of Utrecht, Action of the' 

and of having intrigued to restore the Pretender ? It ^®"w ministry 

was determined to impeach them; but Bolingbroke leaders of the 

and Ormond fled to France, and Oxford alone was °^'^* 

arrested and committed to the Tower. Bolingbroke and Ormond 

were attainted in their absence. The elections which took place 

on the accession of George had been the scenes of such riots 

and disorders that a Riot Act was passed, by which 

. , , , ^ , 1 ,. TJie I^iot Act. 

the magistrates were empowered to employ soldiers 
to break up any mob of more than twelve persons who refused 
to disperse when ordered to do so in the king's name. This Act 
still remains in force. 

The riots were only symptoms of the prevalence of a very 
dangerous feeling. There is no doubt that Jacobitism, as adherence 
to the cause of the Stuarts was called, was very ^ 

T J Dangerous 

widespread, though in England no insurrection had feeling in the 
the slightest chance which was not backed by a country, 
regular army. In Scotland, dissatisfaction with the Union, joined 
to the usual antagonism of the Highland clans to constituted 
authority, were thought likely to make a successful revolt pos- 
sible, and in 1715 the Earl of Mar in Scotland, insurrections 
and in England, Forster, member for Northumber- i^ the North, 
land, and the Earl of Derwentwater attempted an insurrection. 
In Scotland, as usual, the government were able to depend on the 

Y 



322 The Hanoverians. [1715- 

followers of Argyll, while the discontent of the Lowlanders was 
not sufficiently strong to overcome their usual suspicion of the 
Highland clans. Consequently Argyll was able to bar the road 
from Perth to Stirling, and so to confine the Scottish insurrection 
to the Highlands. Only a small detachment was sent by Mar to 
join the English insurgents. Both insurrections failed. Mar 
Battle of fought a doubtful battle with Argyll at Sherriffmuir, 
snerrifEmuir. j^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ of ^^^ ^^^ Argyll still held the road 

to Stirling, so the real advantage lay with him. The same day the 
English insurgents were forced to surrender at Preston, After the 
battle of Sherriffmuir, the Pretender himself came over ; but he 
brought neither troops nor personal ability to the aid of his followers, 
and, after a very short stay, he and Mar deserted their army and 
made the best of their way to France. For their share in the 
insurrection, Derwentwater and a few others were executed ; Forster 
escaped from prison. 

The miserable failure of these insurrections showed clearly that 
no rising was likely to be successful which was not aided by a 

George's foreign force. Such an army might be supplied by 
foreign policy, j^j-ance, Spain, or Sweden, and the foreign policy of 
George's ministers was chiefly directed to prevent such aid being 
given to the Jacobite party. France became much more friendly 
after the death of Louis XIV., which happened in 1715, while 
the rebellion was going on. His successor was his great-grand- 
son, Louis XV., a little boy in delicate health, who was under the 
regency of his cousin, the Duke of Orleans. The next heir to 
the throne was Philip of Spain, but his succession was barred by the 
treaty of Utrecht, and Orleans, who hoped to be king himself, was 
therefore ready to join England in support of the treaty. There 
was nothing, therefore, to fear from France. Spain was more 
dangerous, for the Spanish minister, Alberoni, was an able and 
ambitious man, who was anxious to regain for Spain some of 
the dominions she had lost at the treaty of Utrecht. Spain's 
policy was therefore dangerous to both France and Austria, and 
England and Holland joined with them to form, in 1718, a 
The quadruple quadruple alliance for the maintenance of the treaty 

treaty. of Utrecht. Agaiiist this combination Spain was 

powerless. Open war had never been declared, but Admiral Byng 



1717.] George I. 323 

had in 1718 destroyed tlie Spanisli fleet, which was threatening 
Sicily, off Cape Passaro, and the next year the Spaniards landed 
a small force at Glenshiel, in the Highlands, which was defeated 
without difficulty. The hostility of Sweden was due to the pur- 
chase by Hanover, from the Kmg of Denmark, of the districts 
of Bremen and Verden, near the mouth of the Elbe, which had 
formerly belonged to Sweden. This enraged the warlike Charles 
XII., King of Sweden, against George, and he seriously thought 
of helping the Jacobites by landing an army in Scotland ; but in 
1718 he was kiUed during an invasion of Norway, so this danger 
passed away. 

At home the chief measure of the government had been the 
passing of the Septennial Act. By the Act of 1694, Parliament 
was necessarily dissolved after it had sat three years, r^-^^ septenaial 
This would have caused a general election in 1717, -^c*- 

at the moment when the country had just been agitated by rebellion. 
To avoid this danger, an act was passed prolonging the duration of 
Parliament to seven years, but not longer. This was intended to 
be a temporary measure, but it has never been repealed. It was 
wittily said at the time that a triennial Parliament passed its first 
year in trying election petitions, its second in discussing measures, 
and its third in awaiting dissolution. The Septennial Act made the 
policy of Parliament less fluctuating. It also helped the Whigs to 
consolidate their power during the longer interval between one 
general election and another. Its chief effects at present are to 
give security against violent changes of policy, to secure time for 
the party passions which a general election kindles to subside, and 
to give greater independence to the members than they would have 
if elections Were more frequent. 

In 1717 the "Whig triumvirate broke up. Differences of opinion 

arose between Townshend and Stanhope. The latter was the 

favourite of the king, as he supported George's Hano- ^ , 

°' ^^ ° Break up of the 

verian policy, which was the cause of our trouble Whigr trium- 
with Sweden. This was opposed by Townshend, who, 
in 1716, ceased to be Secretary of State, and became Lord-Lieu- 
tenant of Ireland ; and next year Townshend and Walpole resigned 
altogether. With them retired Pulteney, an admirable speaker, 
who was a great friend of Walpole. Stanhope then became leading 



324 The Hanover ia7is. [1717- 

minister, with Sunderland and Addison, whose pen had done good 
service for the Whigs, as Secretaries of State. 

Stanhope was an able and broad-minded minister. He held 

the old Whig dislike of religious disabilities, and in 1718 he per- 

Bepeai of the suaded Parliament to repeal the Occasional Con- 

occasionai formitv and Schism Acts. He would have liked, had 

Conformity and '' , /-s t 

ScMsm Acts, he been able, to have relieved the Koman Catholics 
from some of their disabilities ; but even a Whig House of Commons 
was so easily roused by the cry of " The Church is in danger," that 
this enlightened statesman had to deny himself the honour which 
such a measure would have conferred upon him. 

In opposition, Walpole so far forgot his Whig principles as to 
oppose the repeal of the Occasional Conformity and Schism Acts ; 

The Peerage but he was better justified in resisting the passage of 
■^^^^- Stanhope's Peerage Bill. The object of this bill was 

twofold. It was intended, in the first place, to prevent the 
Hanoverian kings from giving peerages to foreigners ; in the second, 
to make it impossible to create a batch of new peers, in order to 
override the majority of the House of Lords, as Harley had done in 
Anne's reign. The bill provided that only six more peerages, 
beyond the then number of one hundred and seventy-eight, might be 
created. Extinct peerages were, however, to be filled up, and, to 
ensure frequent vacancies, the new peerages were to be confined 
to heirs-male. The bill passed the Lords readily enough, but when 
it reached the Commons it was stoutly opposed by Walpole. The 
chief objections to it were, that it made a new restriction upon the 
prerogative of the crown, and that it removed any chance of bring- 
ing the peers into agreement with the popular house. Walpole, 
however, dealt with the matter by asking the Commons how they 
could pass a bill to prevent themselves and their descendants from 
being made peers. This argument carried the day, and the bill was 
thrown out. Had it been passed the rule of the Whig oligarchy, 
who were then in power, could have been made perpetual, and 
nothing short of a revolution could have broken down the opposi- 
tion of the House of Lords if it set itself in resolute opposition to 
the House of Commons. 

The same year that saw the rejection of the Peerage Bill witnessed 
the rise of the South Sea Scheme. The scheme took its origin 



1720. The South Sea Scheme, 325 

from the success of the South Sea Company. This company had 
been founded in 1711 by an Act of Parliament, me south sea 
which gave to it the exclusive right of trading in the scheme. 
Pacific Ocean, and along the east coast of America, from the 
Orinoco to Cape Horn. By the treaty of Utrecht the monopoly of 
the slave trade had been secured for England, and also permission 
to send one ship a year to the Spanish colonies. The company, 
therefore, had flourished, and was desirous of extending its business. 
At that time every one was very anxious about the National Debt, 
which was not only large in amount, but had been borrowed, when 
the securit}'' of government was bad, at a very high rate of interest. 
Accordingly, the company said in effect to the government, " If 
we can get the fundholders to take shares in our company, in 
exchange for the shares they now hold in the National Debt, we 
shall then become your sole creditor, and shall be willing to be 
content with only five per cent, interest from you, and the share- 
holders shall have the advantage of the difierence between the 
interest they now receive from you, and the dividend we hope to 
declare. Moreover, the having a regular income will be so useful 
to us, that we will give you a bonus of seven and a half millions, 
which you can use at once in paying off some of your liabilities." 

The scheme was thought so likely to benefit the company that 
the Bank of England brought forward a similar project; but they 
were outbidden by their rivals, and Parliament gave 

. ' . _, . Parliament 

its sanction to the origmal proposal. The important sanctions the 
question was whether the holders of the National Debt ^° ®°^®" 
would exchange their stock for shares in the company. It was soon 
answered in the afSrmative, and so eager was everybody to hold 
shares in a company which had such a brilliant future, that the value 
of shares immediately began to rise. Nowadays any one who has 
savings can readily buy a little three per cent. Government Stock, or 
take a few shares in a railway or other company ; but in those days 
investment was not easy, the wealth of the country was increasing, 
so hundreds of persons flocked to buy South Sea stock, and a 
£100 share rose to be worth £1000. It was plain that, if five 
per cent, was the usual rate of interest, the company must make 
at least fifty per cent, for this price to pay; and, of course, this 
was most unlikely. 



326 George I. [1720- 

The rage, however, for speculation was so great that other 

companies came into the field. Some were sensible, and some 

Rival absurd. One was " for insuring masters and mistresses 

schemes. against losses caused by the carelessness of servants," 
another " for a wheel for perpetual motion," and a third " for 
carrying on an undertaking of great advantage, but nobody to know 
what it is." The South Sea Company prosecuted some of the 
projectors of these absurd swindles, and their action opened the 
eyes of the nation to the recklessness of their own speculation. 
The shares immediately fell ; every one wished to sell, and no one 
was willing to buy, and the shares dropped to £135 apiece. There 
they stayed, which showed that the company was perfectly solvent, 
for £35 was a very good premium ; but those who had given more 
lost their money. Terrible ruin ensued, and men and women of 
every class suffered, while a few who had sold out in time made 
vast sums. Among these was Walpole. That minister had opposed 
the bill, but as he had opposed everjilhing else that Stanhope 
brought forward, his word had not had much weight. His opposi- 
tion, however, now stood him in good stead, and he was eagerly 
called on to save the country. A cry was raised against the 
directors of the company, and an investigation demanded. Then 
it was found that bribes had been given to many persons about the 
court and to some members of Parliament to secure the passing of 
the bill. Stanhope himself was innocent, but in defending himself 
against the charge of corruption he burst a blood-vessel, and died 
suddenly. Sunderland had to resign, and Aislabie, Chancellor of the 
Exchequer, was expelled from the House. The bargain between 
government and the company was quashed, and after a time 
trade settled down, and public credit was restored. 

Walpole now became first Lord of the Treasury and Prime Minister 
of England. He is the first to whom this title is usually given. As 
Title of Prime we have seen, at various times different ministers have 

Minister. \^^^ the chief place. Under the Normans and early 
Plantagenets it was the Justiciar; under the later Plantagenets, 
Tudors, and early Stuarts, it was the Chancellor. Clarendon had 
been the last great Chancellor, and the leader had of late been the 
Lord Treasurer. It had, however, often been the custom not to 
appoint a Lord Treasurer, but to place the treasury under the 



17S2.] Walpole. 327 

management of a board, the members of which were called Lords 
of the Treasury, and the chairman was called the First Lord. In a 
similar way we now have a First Lord of the Admiralty. Since 
the ministers had been chosen from one political party, they had 
begun to act together much more than before, and this had given 
them the name of the Ministry ; the leader of which was called 
the Premier, or Prime Minister. This title is not to be found in 
English law ; it is merely a title of courtesy. The Premier need 
not necessarily be the First Lord of the Treasury. In Lord Sahs- 
bury's ministry in 1885, and again in 1887, he held the post of 
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. 

Walpole became Prime Minister in March, 1721. His chief 
colleagues were Townshend, Pulteney, and Carteret ; of these Towns- 
hend and Pulteney have been noticed before. Carteret Robert 
was a peer and a most brilliant speaker ; he also had "W'aipoie. 
the advantage of knowing German, which gave him great influence 
with the king. Happily for Walpole, all his gi'eat rivals about this 
time left the political stage. Stanhope was dead ; Sunderland 
had already resigned office, and died in 1722 ; Aislabie had been 
expelled. There were no great statesmen who were not at this 
time his friends. Walpole himself was a most remarkable man. 
He was a thorough Englishman, plain-spoken and good-natured, a 
hard worker but a lover of sport, with a capital knowledge of 
human nature and of the art of managing men; he knew what 
he wanted to get and how to get it, and if he found that in- 
superable difficulties lay in his way, he was wilhng to turn back 
and to wait for a more convenient season. His great fault was 
that, like many other able men, he was too fond of keeping power 
in his own hands, and his jealousy of the interference of other 
men led to a series of quarrels with all the ablest members of the 
Whig party. Abroad, Walpole advocated peace as the best security 
against Jacobite intrigue ; at home, he was in favour of such 
moderate reforms as were not likely to provoke much opposition. 
He had no hking for heroic measures, and always went on the 
principle of letting well alone. 

The need for this caution was very soon shown by the revelation 
of a Jacobite conspiracy. The friends of the Pretender had been 
much elated by the birth of a grandson of James II., who was 



328 George /. [1722- 

afterwards tlie unfortunate leader of the rebellion of '45 ; they also 
Jacobite beheved that G-eorge was tired of his new power, 
conspiracy, ^nd the Pretender went so far as to write to the king- 
and offered to secure him the title of King of Hanover if he would 
retire in his favour; it was also believed that the country wag 
irritated by the South Sea Scheme. These hopes, which were 
quite misleading, encouraged the Jacobites to fresh efforts ; but the 
government was soon aware of what was going on. Their chief 
agent, Atterbury, Bishop of Eochester, was arrested and tried before 
the House of Lords. His guilt was proved, and he was sent into 
banishment. This blow crushed the Jacobites for a time, and 
Walpole felt safe enough to allow Bohngbroke to come back ; but 
his attainder was not reversed, so the great Tory was never again 
able to sit in the House of Lords. 

In 1724 the first quarrel between Walpole and his colleagues took 
place. This time Carteret was Walpole's opponent. The king 
Quarrel took Walpole's side, and Carteret had to accept the 
WaipTiiTnd ^^^'^ of Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, just as Townshend 
his colleagues, had done eight years before. The Duke of New- 
castle and his brother, Henry Pelham, then joined Walpole. 

On reaching Ireland Carteret found abundance of work. We saw 
that by Poynings' law no bill could be introduced into the Irish 
state of Parhament which had not first passed the English 
Ireland. council. This deprived the Irish Parliament of ail 
power of independent legislation ; and in 1719 the Enghsh Parlia- 
ment passed a statute by which the English Parliament was allowed 
to pass laws binding on Ireland. This took away even the semblance of 
independence, and naturally made the Irish very jealous of Enghsh 
interference. Accordingly, when Walpole, in 1722 granted a patent 
Renewal of to an ironmaster, named Wood, to coin £108,000 
the coinage, worth of copper in order to restore the Irish coin- 
age, just as that of England had been renewed in 1696, there 
broke out a fierce agitation. It was not that the new copper coins 
were to be bad — apparently every care had been taken that the 
opposite should be the case ; the real grievance was that Ireland 
had not been consulted in the matter. This feeling was fanned to 
fever-heat by a series of letters written by Dean Swift, the ablest 
of the Tory pamphleteers, mider the title of the " Drapier," and 



1725.] ^ Walpole. 329 

when Carteret arrived he found all Ireland in a blaze. True, how- 
ever, to his usual policy, Walpole, when he found the The Drapier 
opposition to be serious, withdrew his scheme, and i^etters, 
Ireland again settled down into gloomy quiescence. In 1727 the 
franchise was taken away from all Catholics, so that Protestants 
alone could either vote at elections or sit as members of the Irish 
Parhament. Consequently the Dublin Parliament only represented 
one-sixth of the population of Ireland. 

In 1725 Walpole quarrelled with Pulteney, another of his 
colleagues. Pulteney, who had been a great friend of Walpole, 
was not prepared to efface himself, and he had no puiteney and 
sooner left office than he began to organize an opposi- "^JgafizTan 
tion to the minister. Hitherto there had been no opposition, 
organized opposition in the House ; but Pulteney set himself to 
revive the old country party which had opposed the court under 
Charles II. In those days the court party had been Tories ; they 
were now Whigs ; but this made little difference. There was still 
great jealousy of the power of the court, and of this Pulteney took 
advantage. His great ally was Bolingbroke, who saw that he 
could never regain his lost power so long as Walpole was at 
the helm ; and these two able men steadily set themselves to form 
an opposition to the government, both in the House and in the 
country. In Parliament Pulteney gathered round himself the dis- 
contented Whigs, who thought they had been ill used by Walpole, 
and acted more or less in concert with the Tories. Bolingbroke 
strove to excite the country by attacking ministers in the Craftsman. 
This paper, which was published daily, was the first i^e 

regular opposition newspaper. It attacked Walpole "Craftsman." 
impartially whatever he did. If Walpole advocated peace, it 
said that he was bent on sacrificing the interests of his country ; 
if he remonstrated with foreign powers, it declared that he was 
dragging the country into war. Everything that ingenuity could 
suggest was made use of against ministers, and soon the country 
party, who called themselves Patriots, attained formidable dimensions. 

The centre of the opposition was the court of the Prince of 
Wales. It was one of the peculiarities of the early . 

Hanoverian sovereigns that they always quarrelled ofWaies 
with their heirs. This was not creditable to the ^^ o»»°s^ ^°^' 



33° 



George I. 



[1727. 



royal family, but it was a good thing for the country. Had father 
and son been united, any one who was discontented with the govern- 
ment of the father would naturally have gone over to the Pretender. 
As it was, he merely allied himself with the Prince of Wales, so 
that the rivalry between the two centres of Hanoverian influence 
was a positive advantage. Pulteney and Bolingbroke flattered the 
Deatii of Prince, and hoped that when he came to the throne 
George I. Walpole would be dismissed. Whilst these intrigues 
were going on George died suddenly in Hanover, in 1727. 



CHIEF BATTLES, SIEGES, AND TREATIES 
GEORGE I, AND GEORGE II. 

Battle of Sherriffmuir 

,, Preston ,. 

,, Cape Passaro 

Porto Bello taken 

Battle of Dettingen 

,, Fontenoy 

,, Preston Pans ,. 

,, Culloden 

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 

Capitulation of Klosterseven 

Battle of Plassey 

„ Carthagena , , 

,, Basque Roads 

,, Minden 

Capture of Quebec ... 

Battle of Lagos 

,j Quiberon Bay 

,, Waudewasb (George III.) 



UNDER 



1715 



1718 
1739 
1743 

1745 

1746 

1748 
1757 

1758 

1759 



1760 



Canda^arfl 



To illustrate the English Conquest 

English Miles 
200 400 




CHAPTER n. 

George II., 1727-1760 (33 years). 
Born 1683; married, 1705, Caroline of Anspach. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — Queen Caroline ; Walpole ; Bolingbroke ; 
Pulteney ; Carteret ; John and Charles Wesley ; Porteous ; Wil- 
mington ; Henry Pelham ; William, Duke of Cumberland ; Anson ; 
Prince Charles Edward ; Cope ; Henry Fox ; William Pitt, after- 
wards Earl of Chatham ; Pelham, Duke of Newcastle ; Dupleix ; 
Clive ; Admiral Byng ; the Duke of Devonshire ; Rodney ; Wolfe. 

The new king, George II., was wholly under the influence of his 

wife, Caroline of Anspach. This remarkable woman had as great 

ascendenc}'^ over her husband as the Duchess of 

Influence of _,,, ^^^ _ . ,, , 

Queen Marlborough had over Queen Anne; but, as she 
Caroline. -^^^ more tact in exercising it, she kept it till her 
death, and during the first ten years of the reign, Caroline, much 
more than her husband, was the real head of the government. In 
accordance with his sentiments as Prince of Wales, George's first 
act was to dismiss Walpole, and to ask Sir Spencer Compton, 
Speaker of the House of Commons, to take his place. Sir Spencer, 
however, was so incompetent, that he actually asked Walpole to 
help him in writing the king's speech. Caroline, who was Walpole's 

friend, at once pointed out to the king the absurdity of 
"Walpole . ^ -111 1 

retained this. Geoi'ge was convmced by her arguments, and 
m power. y^\^Q-Q. Walpole himself promised to propose a large 
addition to the king's annual income, or civil list, the old minister 
was restored to his place, and the opposition were disappointed. 
They did not, however, relax their efforts, but did all they could to 
harass the minister and to win new recruits for their own party. 

Meanwhile Walpole steadily carried out his old pohcy both at 
home and abroad. Spain was still hostile to the treaty of Utrecht, 



1733.] Walpole, 33^ 

and in 1726 she induced Austria, which was jealous of Hanoverian 
influence in Germany, to join her. This movement •waipoie's 
was met by an alliance made at Hanover between policy abroad. 
England, France, and Prussia. War ensued ; but Walpole confined 
England's operations strictly to the defensive, and, an attack of 
the Spaniards upon Gibraltar having failed, peace was concluded at 
Seville in 1729. At home, Walpole was not willing his policy 
to excite a disturbance by doing much for the Non- at home, 
conformists, as he feared that to do so would only throw the Church 
into the arms of the opposition; but he began the practice of 
passing an annual Bill of Indemnity for those who had broken the 
Test and Corporation Acts. This was not a very satisfactory 
way of dealing with the question, but it served Waipoie's purpose 
for the time. 

In 1730 Lord Townshend left the ministry. He was Waipoie's 
brother-in-law, and had been his firm friend ; but Waipoie's over- 
bearing conduct, and his practice of making the House Lord 
of Lords reject any bills which he did not feel strong ^ea^s^tl^ 
enough to resist in the Commons, alienated Towns- ministry, 
hend, and he retired after an open quarrel, and left Walpole 
supreme. Townshend did not go into opposition, but withdrew to 
the country, where he devoted himself chiefly to agri- uis work in 
culture, in which he did great service by encou- *^® coimtry, 
raging the gi'owth of turnips, a useful vegetable, which can be grown 
while the soil is recovering after the exhaustion caused by the 
growth of a crop of wheat, without interfering with the process of 
recovery. Before Townshend's time such fields were allowed to 
lie fallow for a year, so that the introduction of the turnip was a 
real gain to the country. 

The first success of the opposition was gained in 1733. In that 
year Walpole brought forward his celebrated excise scheme, by 
which he proposed to substitute a very small duty ■w'aipoie's 
and an excise levied at the shops where they were excise scheme, 
sold, for the large customs duties hitherto levied at the ports on wine 
and tobacco. By this plan smugghng would be checked, because the 
reduction of the customs duty would make it not worth while to run 
the risk of detection ; and also the public would have to pay a less 
price for their wine, because the cost of articles would be mcreased 



334 George II. ii7S3- 

only by tlie exact sum levied at the shop by government, instead of 
there being added to it the interest on the tax levied at the port. It 
Was also believed that the system would encourage importation. The 
scheme, however, was violently denounced by the opposition, first 
on the ground that an Englishman's house is his castle, and that 
liberty would be destroyed if excise officers might at any time call 
to inspect a man's goods ; secondly, on the ground that Walpole's 
real object was to create an army of excisemen, who by their votes 
would turn every election in favour of the government candidate. 
By these arguments Pulteney and Bolingbroke roused the passions 
of the mob, and "Walpole, though he could probably have carried 
it through Parliament, thought it better to withdraw the bill. The 
changes, however, were introduced gradually without comment, 
though the fact that, fifty years later it was found that seventy 
elections depended on the votes of excisemen, shows that the 
second argument had not been without foundation. 

In 1736 all Scotland was agitated by the Porteous riots. These 
tiots, which were of little political significance, arose out of an order 

The Porteous given by one Captain Porteous to fire upon the mob, 
riots. at the execution in Edinburgh of a certain smuggler, 

who had enlisted their sympathy by a brave and successful attempt 
to secure the escape of one of his fellows. For this Porteous was 
condemned to die, but Was reprieved by the government ; and the 
mob, angry at this, broke open the gaol, and hanged him on a 
barber's pole. For this disturbance the magistrates of Edinburgh 
were reprimanded, and the city was fined £2000. These events 
form the groundwork of Sir Walter Scott's novel, " The Heart of 
Midlothian.'* 

The most important event of the early years of Gleorge II. was 

the rise of the Methodists. When this king ascended the throne, 

Kise of tue ^he chief Nonconformist bodies in England were the 

Methodists. Independents, the Presbyterians, the Baptists, and the 

Society of Friends. The members of the Church of England were 
much more numerous than those Who belonged to these bodies; but 
the condition of the Church Was far from satisfactory. This was in 
part due to the alienation which existed between the lower clergy, 
who were for the most part Tories, and the bishops, who since the 
accession of George I. had been invariably appointed from the 



1739,] Walpole* 335 

Whigs. Another cause was the silencing of Convocation, whichj 
except under the commonwealth, had since the time of Edward I 
always sat at the same time as Parliament. After the Kestoration, 
however, Convocation had ceased to vote the taxes of the clergy, 
and after 1718, when its meetings from the violence of party 
feeling had become a trouble to the government, it had not been 
allowed to transact business. Moreover, since the reign of Anne 
the cause of the Church had been made a mere party cry, and the 
clergy, not wholly through their own fault, had become partisans. 
Accordingly there was very little hfe in the Church, and conse- 
quently religion was falling into decay, both in the country and at 
the universities. It was under these circumstances that in 1730 a 
little knot of Oxford men formed themselves into a society which 
aimed at living a systematic religious life. The heads of this 
society were two brothers, John and Charles Wesley, and they were 
soon joined by George Whitefield. From the regularity of their 
lives they were called by their fellows " Methodists," and the name 
is still used and honoured by their followers. In 1739 they removed 
the head-quarters of their society to London, and numbers soon 
joined them, which before Wesley's death in 1791 amounted to 
many thousands. At first they regarded themselves as members 
of the Church of England, but when the clergy refused to allow 
them to preach in their churches, they began to hold meetings of 
their own, sometimes in the open air, sometimes in barns, after- 
wards in chapels of their own, and so by degrees they drifted 
away from the Church. Four years after Wesley's death their 
preachers began to administer the sacraments, and then they became 
a nonconformist body. The rise of the Methodists was a good thing 
for rehgion, as their example acted upon the Church, and made 
the clergy more energetic and sincere than they had been before 
its occurrence. 

The beginning of Wesley's work, however, attracted little notice, 
for all eyes were turned upon the great contest which was going on 
between Walpole and the opposition. Pulteney and contest 
his friends had been making way both in Parliament 'v^ai^^eTnci 
and in the country ; but Walpole's position was very t^^® opposition, 
strong. In those days, when a great many of the boroughs were 
very small indeed, the chief influence at the elections was in the 



336 George IT. 



^(^ -tl. [i737_ 



hands of a few men, and the corruption of many boroughs was so 
great that seats could be bought and sold. Walpole took full 
advantage of this to get his friends elected, and when they had 
taken their seats he secured their allegiance by bribery and 
patronage. At that time neither the division lists of the House nor 
the speeches of the members were reported, so that few knew 
which side members took. Under these circumstances corruption 
was certain, and Walpole reduced it to a regular system. 

The first great shock to Walpole's power was the death of Queen 
Caroline, in 1737. The king, however, remained true to him, but 

Walpole's the Prince of Wales had united himself to the 
power siiaken. opposition, and since the rethement of Bolingbroke, 
who left England in 1734, had been the nominal head of the 
country party. A more serious danger to Walpole's power than the 
mere party attacks of the opposition was, however, arising. This was 
the growth of a hostile feeling between England and Spain. This 

Hostility ^^^^ity arose out of the colonial poHcy of the two 
of England Countries. As we saw, Spain had, by the treaty of 

and Spain. -,-r, i , • ■, ' ./ j ^-^ 

Utrecht, given the English the privilege of sending 
one ship a year to trade with the Spanish colonies. This right had 
been abused by the EngHsh, who had sent out, beside the single 
ship, a number of tenders, who, keeping out of sight of land, replen- 
ished the trading vessel with fresh goods. The English colonies, too, 
were always trying to set up a contraband trade with those of 
Spain, and the Spaniards tried to stop this by searching English 
vessels for smuggled goods. This naturally led to quarrels, in one 
of which a certain Englishman, named Jenkins, had his ear cut oif 
by a Spanish sailor. Jenkins brought his severed ear home, and 
used to carry it about wrapped in cotton wool. When asked what 
his feelings were when in the hands of the Spaniards, he replied, 
" I commended my soul to God and my cause to my country." The 
opposition, of course, made the most of this, and accused Walpole 
of neglecting the interests of the country. 

Walpole, however, had no mind to go to war. He feared that 
war with Spain would soon develop into war with France, and 

War with that, he was aware, would mean the renewal of the 

Spain. Jacobite intrigue. The opposition, however, had the 

country and the king on its side, and Walpole, rather than lose office, 



174.4.] Walpole — Wilmington — Pelham. 337 

allowed himself to be forced into declaring war against Spain. 
When he heard the bells ringing for joy for this, he exclaimed, 
" They are ringing their bells now, but soon they will be wringing 
their hands." At first the war was pretty successful, and Admiral 
Vernon captured Porto Bello ; but an attack upon Carthagena failed, 
and the country soon became disenchanted. Of this the opposition 
took full benefit. They were now led by Pulteney and Sandys in 
the Commons, and by Carteret in the Lords, and they attacked 
Walpole without ceasing. To answer them, Walpole was obliged to 
rely mainly on himself. He had quarrelled with all 
his old friends, and most of the young men, such as po e s a . 
Pitt, who was afterwards so famous, had attached themselves to the 
opposition. StiU he did not despair, and in 1741 motions which 
were brought forward by Carteret and Sandys in their respective 
houses were thrown out by large majorities. The next year 
however, a general election took place, and when Walpole found 
himself defeated by a majority of sixteen in a question which arose 
out of the Chippenham election, he resigned all his offices and 
retired to the House of Lords as Earl of Orford. 

The fall of Walpole was not followed by a complete change of 
ministry. His own place was taken by Lord Wilmington, whom 
we have already known as Sir Spencer Compton. chang-es in tiie 
Carteret, however, was the moving spirit in the new ministry, 
administration. Pulteney did not take office, but went to the House 
of Lords as Earl of Bath, and so lost much of his power. The 
Duke of Newcastle and his brother Pelham still kept their places 
In this form the ministry remained for a year; when, on Wilmington's 
death, Henry Pelham became Prime Minister. Pelham was recom- 
mended to George by Walpole, who still retained much influence. 
Carteret's influence steadily declined, and in 1744 he left the govern- 
ment altogether, soon after succeeding to the title of T^e "broad- 
Earl Granville. Pelham then formed the administra- 2!?"°^t*^" 

administra- 
tion known as the "broad-bottomed," because it tio^- 

included men who represented every section of the Whig party. 

At home Walpole's retirement made httle change ; but, abroad, 

the new government threw themselves vigorously into 

o ./ Foreign policy 

the war. Carteret was favourable to George's wish of the new 
to increase the influence of Hanover in Germany, ^o^^^^^^e^** 

z 



33 8 George II. [i740- 

and he, therefore, joined in a war which was being waged between 
Maria Theresa of Austria and the Elector of Bavaria. The Emperor 
Charles VI. had died in 1740, leaving his dominions to his daugh- 
ter, Maria Theresa. She was at once attacked by Frederick of 
Prussia, and afterwards by Bavaria and France. England alone 
among the great powers took her side. The ministry took into 
pay a large body of Hanoverians and Hessians, and these, with 
some English troops, were put under the command of the Earl of 
Stair; they were soon joined by George himself, and his second 
son, William, Duke of Cumberland ; while the French forces were 
led by the Marshal Noailles, who had with him his nephew, the 
Duke of Grammont. 

The first fighting of importance took place in the valley of the 
Main, in 1743. The alhed forces were marching from Aschaflfen- 
Battie of 1^^1'g ^'^ Hanau, when Noailles secretly sent forward 
Dettingen. g^ body of troops under his nephew, who crossed the 
river and seized the defile of Dettingen, through which the English 
had to pass. Fortunately Grammont's eagerness led him to attack 
the English before his uncle had time to support him, and con- 
sequently he suffered a terrible defeat at the hands of the allies, 
who, led by George in person, drove Grammont's men across the 
river at the point of the bayonet. This was the last battle in which 
an English king was present. This victory gave considerable credit 
to the government, which was increased by the for- 

Heturnof ° „ ' . , ^ , ^ , 

Commodore tunate return oi Commodore Anson, who had been 

Anson. despatched against the Spaniards in 1740. After 

taking many prizes, both on the coast of South America and the 

Philippine Islands, he sailed home by the Cape of Good Hope, 

bringing thirty waggons' load of treasure worth £1,250,000. 

The next year, 1745, however, was not so fortunate. Tournay, 
one of the Netherland towns, which, in accordance with the barrier 
Battle of treaty, was garrisoned by Dutch troops, was being 
rontenoy. besieged by the French under Marshal Saxe, when 
a mixed army of English, Hanoverians, Hessians, and Dutch, 
advanced to relieve it. The two armies met at Fontenoy. The 
allies were commanded by the young Duke of Cumberland, who 
was advised by Marshal Konigsegg, and Louis XV. in person was 
with the French. The English soldiers with the greatest bravery 



1745.] Pel/iam. ^^^ 

forced their way into the very centre of the French army ; but 
as the Hessians ran away and the Dutch refused to advance, they 
were obliged to retreat at the moment when victory should have 
been their o^ti. In consequence, the allies were defeated; but 
the magnificent advance of the English and Hanoverians was long 
remembered with pride. Tournay soon afterwards surrendered. 

As Walpole had always foretold, the English had not long been at 
war, when the French began to arrange a new insurrection in favour 
of the Stuarts. In 1744 a large fleet was collected at stuart 
Dunkirk, but fortunately, at the very moment when insurrection, 
the troops were on board and everything was ready for an invasion, 
a terrible storm shattered the French fleet; some vessels sank, 
others were driven on shore. The expedition was to have conveyed 
Prince Charles Edward, the eldest son of the Pretender; but the 
French government, discouraged by the storm, refused to give him 
further assistance, and accordingly, the next year, he determined to 
go by himself to Scotland and seek his fortune in the Highlands. He 
sailed in a smaU brig, but was accompanied by a French man-of 
war, which carried a supply of arms and ammunition. This vessel, 
however, was attacked by an English man-of-war, and was compelled 
to go home ; but Charles, though deprived by this accident of the 
necessaries of war, arrived safely in the Hebrides. The Highland 
clansmen refused at first to join in so hazardous an enterprise as 
a rising without the aid of regular troops, but Charles' entreaties 
at length prevailed over their prudence, and when he was joined by 
the gallant Cameron of Lochiel, numbers of Highlanders flocked to 
his standard. 

Nature has divided Scotland into three distinct parts; first the 
northern Highlands, second the central Highlands, and third the 
Lowlands. The northern Highlands were divided 
from the central by a chain of lakes, which are now divisions of 
connected by the Caledonian Canal ; this line is de- Scotland, 
fended at its south-west point by Fort William, at its centre by Fort 
Augustus, and at the northern end by Inverness. By a rapid move- 
ment the Highlanders made themselves masters of Fort WilHam, 
and so gained the means of marching into the central Highlands. 
The commander-in-chief in Scotland, Sir John Cope, had, on the 
first news of the Pretender's approach, been ordered by the 



340 George II. [1745- 

Marquess of Tweeddale, who was Secretary of State, to march into 
the Highlands. This he did, and was on his way to Fort Augustus, 
when he learnt that the Highlanders were ready to bar his road at 
a place called the Devil's Staircase, where the road, in seventeen 
zigzags, wound its way up the steep side of Corriearrack. On learn- 
ing this, Cope turned aside for Inverness, thus leaving the road 
to Edinburgh open, and of this mistake the prince took advantage 
at once. Before he reached Perth he was joined by thousands 
of clansmen, and after winning an easy triumph over some Edin- 
burgh volunteers and a body of cavalry who tried to bar his way 
at Coltbridge, about two miles from the city, he reached Edinburgh. 
Meanwhile Cope had taken ship at Inverness and reached 
Dunbar, where he landed his men and marched towards Edin- 
Battie of burgh, by the high-road, which ran along the level 
Preston Pans, ground by the Firth. Charles marched out to attack 
him, moving his troops along the line of the Lammermuir Hills, 
until he came opposite to where Cope lay. This forced Cope 
to change h\s ground, and he formed his forces almost with their 
backs to Edinburgh and defended in front by a morass. In this 
position they were attacked in the early morning by the High- 
landers, who made their way through the morass and charged the 
king's troops with the utmost violence. The rush of the High- 
landers carried all before them. The battle is said to have been 
decided in five minutes ; and Cope himself, riding headlong from 
the field, was the first to bring to Berwick the news of his own 
defeat. The battle of Preston Pans, as this engagement was called, 
gave a great impetus to the rebellion, and a large part of Scotland 
declared in favour of the Pretender. 

Charles, however, was by no means satisfied with his success, 

but wished to push on at once to England. This many of his 

„ followers were averse to do, but the prince insisted, 

The prince i i i n i 

crosses tiie and on November 9 he crossed the border, and 
in a few days made himself master of Carlisle. 
Thence he marched by Lancaster to Preston, and thence to Man- 
chester. His situation then became very serious. The castle of 
Edinburgh was still holding out for King George. General Wade 
was at Newcastle, with a considerable army. Cumberland lay at 
Lichfield, while a third force was being collected at Finchley to 



1746.] - PelJiam. 541 

guard the capital. Worse than all, hardly any English Jacobites 
had joined the prince. Since 1715 England had grown prosperous 
under the Hanoverians, and had no wish to go back to the rule 
of the Stuarts. But in spite of this Charles still pressed on, and 
by making a feint in the direction of Wales enticed Cumber- 
land towards Shrewsbury, and then quickly regaining the London 
road, which Cumberland had left open, he reached Derby. By 
this time Wade had advanced to Leeds, so that the rebels were, as 
it were, m the centre of a triangle, of which Finchley, Shrews- 
bury, and Leeds were the points. Of the three armies, that at 
Finchley was probably the worst, and if the Highlanders beat it, 
no one doubted that London would be at their mercy. 

The capital was ui a terrible panic at the prospect of a rebel 
advance. So great was the run upon the Bank of England that 
the directors were forced to pay in sixpences in order Panic ■ 
to gain time. The king had placed most of his i-ondon. 
valuables on a yacht, in case it became necessary to retire to 
Hanover, and it is even said that the Duke of Newcastle was 
seriously thinking of declaring for the Pretender. The day when 
the news came that the Highlanders were at Derby was long 
remembered as " Black Friday." The best chance for a rebel army 
is always to advance, and Charles himself was eager to hurry on 
and try his luck in another battle ; but his officers, frightened by 
the thought of the terrible position they would be in charies obii ed 
in case they were defeated, refused to advance to retreat, 
further, and Charles, much agauist his will, was forced to give 
orders for a retreat. 

In spite of the dejection natural to failure, the Highlanders made 
tremendous exertions, and actually eluded both Cumberland and 
Wade, and regained the border after a doubtful siege of 
skirmish at Clifton, near Penrith, which is the last Stirling, 
serious fighting that has happened in England. Arrived in Scot- 
land, Charles found himself strengthened by the addition of some 
recruits, and he thereupon gave orders for the siege of Stirling, and 
while it was going on he himself defeated at Falkirk Battle of 
General Hawley, who had marched into Scotland I'aiiurk. 
at the head of the English forces. 

At the end of January Cumberland arrived in Scotland, and took 



342 George II. [i746- 

Gommand of the Eoyalists. He had under Mm an excellent army, 

Cumberland ^"^^ ^^ once set out in pursuit of the rebels. On 

takes tj^is Charles retreated across the Forth, pursued by 

command of 

tiie Royalists Cumberland, and thence to Perth. From there he 
in Scotland. ^qjq\^q^ towards Inverness, Cumberland still pur- 
suing; and when they neared that town, Charles, who knew that his 
army was outnumbered, determined to attempt a surprise. The plan 
was a failure, as the distance to be marched by the rebels had been 
underratedj and the Highlanders were forced to retrace their steps 
Battle of to CuUoden Moor, where they drew themselves up 
cuiioden. ^^^ waited for the EngHsh to come up. Cumberland 
ranged his men in two lines, placing the artillery in the gaps 
between the regiments, and the cavalry on the flank ; and in this 
position they were attacked by the Highlanders. With impetuous 
valour some of the clansmen actually forced their way through the 
first hne ; but the reserve stood steady, and the brave Highlanders 
melted away before a terrible fire. Charles' army was completely 
routed, and his men dispersed in all directions. 

The Pretender himself, after five months' wandering in the High- 
lands, disguised sometimes as a servant and sometimes as a woman, 
Charles escapes succeeded in reaching France. Had it not been for 
to France, j^q courago of Flora Macdonald, who took him with 
her in disguise, and the devotion of numbers of poor mm and 
women, who scorned even for a reward of £30,000 to betray their 
prince, he must again and again have been captured. To his 
unfortunate followers a vengeance so terrible was meted out that 
Cumberland gained the title of "the Butcher." Of the more dis- 
tinguished rebels. Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino, and Charles 
Ratcliff, brother of the late Earl of Derwentwater, were executed 
in 1746, Lord Lovat in 1747, and one victim. Dr. Cameron, so late 
as 1753. The most stringent regulations were made in order to 
destroy the power of the Highlanders. They were disarmed, for- 
bidden to wear the national dress, and the hereditary jurisdiction 
of the Highland chiefs was abolished by Act of Parliament. A few 
years later Pitt raised the Highland regiments, which not only 
conciliated the chiefs, but also changed a source of danger into a 
means of defence. 
Dui'ing the rebellion the country had passed through a ministerial 



1748. Pelham. 343 

crisis. Of the younger members of Parliament, none had distin- 
guished themselves more than William Pitt and 

o Pitt and Fox, 

Henry Fox. Pitt, who belonged to a family which 
had made money in India, had entered the House of Commons at 
an early age, and had soon become conspicuous among a crowd of 
debaters by his mastery over the arts of oratory and sarcasm. In 
spite of the fact that he was unconnected with any of the great 
Whig families which at this time monopolized office, he soon 
attained a high position in the eyes of the country ; for his absolute 
freedom from mercenary motives gained him much respect in 
Parliament, while his enthusiastic support of English interests 
gained him the good will of the people at large. With George, 
however, he was by no means a favourite, for much of Pitt's 
popularity had been won by his vigorous opposition to Car- 
teret's Hanoverian policy, and in particular he had always opposed 
the taking of Hanoverians and Hessians into English pay. Henry 
Fox was not so distinguished a man as Pitt, but he was an admirable 
debater and an excellent man of business, and the opposition of these 
two young statesmen to the ministry was a very serious matter. 
Accordingly, at the beginning of 1746, before Culloden had been 
fought, Pelham determined to offer them office ; and when the king 
refused to admit Pitt, he and his colleagues resigned. For a time 
George held out, but the ministry soon returned with Pitt as Vice- 
Treasurer of Ireland, and a few months later he became Paymaster 
of the Forces, and at once made good his reputation for disinterested- 
ness by refusing to receive the usual percentage of the money which 
passed through his hands. At the same time Henry Fox became 
Secretary at War. 

After the defeat of the Pretender the Duke of Cumberland 
returned to the Continent, but though an excellent officer, he was 
not a great general, and in 1747 he was defeated _ ..,._^. 

o ° ' Hostilities on 

at Lauffeld, and the important town of Bergen -op- the continent 
Zoom fell into the hands of the French. During this cease, 

war the English had continued their plan of attacking the French 
colonies in North America, and in 1745 they took from the French 
Louisburg, the capital of the Isle of Cape Breton, peaceof aix- 
at the mouth of the river St. Lawrence. But when la-chapeiie. 
peace was made, in 1748, at Aix-la-Chapelle, all conquests made 



344 George II, [i748- 

during the war were restored on both sides. By this peace hostilities 
on the Continent were concluded, and Maria Theresa's right to 
her dominions was recognized. 

When peace was restored, Pelham gave his attention to domestic 

matters. As a follower of Walpole, he had a great interest in 

finance, and took measures to reduce the National Debt. 

Pelham ' 

reduces tiie Most of the debt had been borrowed at high mterest, 
Nationa e . ^j^^^ ^^ government's credit was bad. The recent 
defeat of the rebellion had improved the position of the Hanoverians 
so much, that Pelham was able to offer the government creditors 
either to be paid off in fall, or to accept three per cent, interest 
instead of the high rate they then enjoyed. Most of them accepted 
the lower rate, and the nation benefited by the change. 

In 1751 Frederick, Prince of Wales, died, leaving a widow and 
many children, the eldest of whom, Prince George, then thirteen 

Death of the years of age, became heir-apparent to the throne, 
Prince of ^^(j ^g^g Created Prince of Wales. Frederick was 

■Wales and of 

Boiin&broke. soon followed by Henry St. John, Lord Bolingbroke, 
who had tried in vain to recover his lost power by the destruction 
of the Whig party. 

In 1752, through the influence of Lord Chesterfield, a change was 
made in the calendar. The calendar arranged by Julius Csesar, by 
Change in the not making Sufficient allowance for leap year, had 
calendar. caused the English date to be then eleven days behind 
the right time. These days were now omitted after September 2, so 
that the next day was reckoned as September 14. The legal year was 
made to begin on January 1, instead of on March 25, as heretofore. 
A similar change had been made in all Eoman Catholic countries 
by order of Pope Gregory XIII. ; but England, being a Protestant 
country, had hitherto refused to do so, and Russia still preserves 
the Old Style of reckoning. This change was much disKked, and 
" Give us back our eleven days," was long a popular cry. 

In 1754 Henry Pelham died. Though not brilliant, he had been 
a man of great common sense, and when the news of his death 
Death of ^as told the king, he exclaimed, " Now I shall 
Pelham. jj^ve no more peace " — a prophecy which proved true. 
Pelham's place was taken by his elder brother, the Duke of New- 
castle, who was a greater master of Parliamentary management, 



1756.] Pelhmn, Newcastle. 345 

but a far inferior statesman. Hitherto Pitt and Fox, though 
ministers, had been kept out of the Cabinet, as the changes m the 
inner circle of ministers had begun to be called ; but ministry, 
in 1755 Fox^ was raised to be Secretary of State, which made Pitt 
very discontented. 

In 1756 the Seven Years' War was begun by Frederick of Prussia, 
for whose overthrow a coalition, in which Russia soon joined, had 
been made by Austria, France, and Saxony. In this rphe Seven 
war England joined, partly for reasons connected with dears' "War. 
Hanover, partly in defence of her colonial interests. As a Protestant 
prince, Frederick had the sympathy of Hanover ; but the chief cause 
of our attack upon the French was our rivalry in America and in India. 

In North America the French held Canada, or the valley of the 
St. Lawrence, and Louisiana, which then comprised the valley of 
the Mississippi, and thus the English colonies which 
lay along the eastern coast were altogether prevented between the 
from extending their territory west of the Alleghany "English i^ 
Mountains. Moreover, the French forbade them to North 
trade with the Indians in the interior, and strictly 
enforced this rule. In 1754 the French built Fort Duquesne on the 
Ohio, to be the chief of a ring of forts stretching all along the border, 
and in consequence there was always bad blood between the rival 
nations, and whether or not the mother countries were at peace, 
war more or less regular was always going on between the colonists. 

In India there was a similar rivalry, though not so open, between 
the French and English East India Companies. For a century 
and a half after their foundation these companies had confined 

1 GENEALOGY OF THE FOX FAMILY. 
Sir Stephen Fox, d. 1716. 



Charles, Stephen, Henry, 

d. 1713. created Earl of created Lord Holland, 

llchester. d. 1774. 



Stephen, second Lord Holland, Charles James Fox, 

d. 1774. d. 1806. 



Henry Richard, third Lord Holland, 
d. 1840. 



34^ George II. [i756- 

themselves to trade, which the English carried on from their three 

Rivalry factories, Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, and the 

between the French from Pondicherry and Trichinopoly. During 

Prencliand ^ ^ / r- , • , f 

English in the sccond quarter, however, oi the eighteenth 
India. century, Dupleix, the French governor of Pondi- 
cherry, formed a plan for getting rid of the English, and bringing the 
country under the rule of the French. 

At this time the whole of India was nominally under the rule 
of the Great Mogul, who lived at Delhi ; but he had little authority 
^T A- ^"^'61' ^^^^ local governors, the nabobs, and rajahs, who 
were constantly trying to make themselves indepen- 
dent, just as the feudal dukes used to do in the Middle Ages. 
Government was so weak, that frequently robbers raised themselves 
to be independent princes ; and besides, there were a few states which 
had never been under the rule of the Mogul. Moreover, the natives 
of these states were divided among themselves ; they spoke many 
languages, and they had divers religions. Among these rivals 
war was constantly going on, and quarrels about succession were 
Dupleix hires frequent, and Dupleix saw that if he got an armed 
native soldiers, force and hired it out to one side or the other, he 
might in time become more powerful than any of the native states. 
Accordingly he drilled a body of Sepoys, as hired native soldiers 
were called, and began to take part in the quarrels of the natives. 
This he did successfully, and gained so much power that the English, 
in self-defence, were forced to imitate his plan. The champion of 
the English was Robert Clive, who had gone out to India as a 
clerk, but soon deserted the pen for the sword. He was a man of 
unconquerable courage, and soon showed himself to be not only 
an excellent soldier, but as good a diplomatist as Dupleix himself. 
During the war of the Austrian Succession there had been open 
war between the French and English traders, and in 1746 the 
French had captured Madras, which was, however, restored at the 
peace ; but in 1751 the English and French again found themselves 
fighting against one another on behalf of the riva^ 
Nabobs of Arcot. Clive with a small force seized 
Arcot itself, and there stood a famous siege from a French and 
native army, in which the English were victorious, and Clive gained 
a great reputation. 



\ 



1757.] Newcastle — Devonshire. 347 

The opening of the Seven Years' War gave the Engh'sh and 
French colonists a further opportunity of fighting. In 1756 an 
English force, under General Braddock, advanced Effect of the 
against Fort Duquesne, but was beaten. The ^^a^on ou? 
general was killed, and only the bravery of George colonial policy. 
Washington, a young colonial officer, saved the army from complete 
destruction. 

The same year the French stirred up Surajah Dowlah, Nabob 
of Bengal, to attack Calcutta, which he did so successfully that the 
greater part of the traders were forced to fly, and the rest, who fell 
into his hands, were cruelly thrown into the Black Hole of Calcutta, 
where most of them perished miserably for want of air. Clive was 
despatched from Madras to retake Calcutta, which he did in 1757. 
The same year he utterly routed Surajah Dowlah at Battle of 
the battle of Plassey, in which a thousand English Piassey. 
and four thousand Sepoys beat fifty thousand Hindoos. The battle 
of Plassey made the English masters of the rich plain of Bengal, and 
has always been regarded as the decisive battle in the history of 
the English in India. 

Meanwhile in Europe the war had been going badly for England. 
In 1756 the French attacked Minorca, which the English had taken 
from Spain in 1708. Admiral Byng, son of the victor x,ossof 
of Cape Passaro, was sent to relieve it. With more Minorca, 
discretion than zeal, he refused to engage a French fleet of superior 
numbers, and Minorca was consequently lost. Byng had shown no 
want of personal courage, but the country was furious at the dis- 
aster, and insisted on his being tried by court-martial. 
This was done. He was found guilty and condemned sentenced to 
to death, and the government dare not risk their 
popularity by pardoning him. He was, accordingly, shot. The 
witty Frenchman, Voltaire, said of his execution, "In England 
they kill one admiral to encourage the rest." 

The ministry which failed to save Byiig was not, however 
responsible for the disaster. On the loss of Minorca, Newcastle had 
resigned, and his place was taken by the Duke 

„ 1 . .0, ^^® Newcastle 

of Devonshire, who made Pitt Secretary of State. and Pitt 
Pitt's first act was to pass a bill reorganizing the ^^'^^ ^y- 
national militia. He hoped to give England a sufficient reserve of 



34^ George 11. [1757- 

soldiers to dispense with the hiring of Hanoverians and Hessians 
■ — a course which Pitt had always opposed. This view, liow- 
ever, found no favour with George, and Pitt was dismissed in 
April, 1757. Devonshire, of course, resigned ; Newcastle was unable 
to form a ministry without Pitt ; and after almost three months' 
hesitation the king agreed to receive a government of which New- 
castle was to be the nominal head, but Pitt the guiding spirit, 
Newcastle's Parliamentary influence made the government safe, so 
Pitt was able to give his whole attention to the war. 

Pitt had great confidence in himself. When he took the reins 
into his hands the country was dispirited by the loss of Minorca, and 
Pitt "saves tiie had lost Confidence in its rulers. "I can save the 

country." country," said Pitt, "and I know that no one else 
can." He at once diffused his own energy into every department. 
His clear sight showed him that now was the chance for England to 
put an end to the rivalry of the French in the colonies, and that 
the way to do so was to keep the French employed in Europe, while 
our fleet swept the sea and our soldiers attacked the French 
possessions in every quarter of the globe. He was only just in time. 
During the change of government, the Duke of Cumberland had 
gone out as general to Hanover, and had been defeated at Hasten- 
beck and forced to surrender at Klosterseven. Pitt at once put the 
English forces under Ferdinand of Brunswick, one of Frederick's 
best generals, and helped the brave King of Prussia to hold the 
French in check by persuading Parliament to vote him a subsidy of 
£670,000 a year. Meanwhile the English fleet beat the Toulon fleet 
off Carthagena, and the Brest fleet in Basque roads, so that help 
could be sent to the colonists, while the French troops in America 
and India were left without aid. 

In 1758 Pitt's plan for an American campaign was quite success- 
ful. Louisburg and Cape Breton were again taken ; Fort Duquesne 
The American Surrendered to a mixed force of English and colonists, 

campaign. ^-^^ \\^^ name was changed to Pittsburg; and within a 
year of Pitt's return to power the whole appearance of the war 
had changed. The year 1759 was even more successful. Kodney 
bombarded Havre at the mouth of the Seine, while Guadaloupe, a 
rich sugar island in the West Indies, was captured; Ferdinand of 
Brunswick defeated the French in the great battle of Minden ; 



1760.] 



Newcastle. 



349 



French fleets were destroyed at Lagos and oflf Quiberon Bay ; while, 
to crown all, Canada was captured. 




Walker ib-BotUall siu. 



"Wolfe's operations at Quebec. 



The capture of Louisburg and Cape Breton had opened to the 
English the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and Pitt followed up his 
success by ordering Greneral Wolfe to go on and attack capture of 
Quebec, the capital of Canada, which stands on the Quebec, 
river St. Lawrence, in the angle formed by its junction with the 
Charles river. Quebec was well fortified, and a strong French army 
was posted below the town, between the rivers Charles and Mont- 
morency, in a strongly entrenched camp. This camp Wolfe found 
impregnable, so re-embarking his men he took them up the St. 
Lawrence, and, taking advantage of a dark night, landed them above 
Quebec. There they found themselves at the foot of the table-land 
on which Quebec stands. With great difficulty they made their way 
to the top, up an inchne so steep that trees could hardly grow on 
it, and when morning broke, Montcalm, the French commander, 
saw the EngHsh drawn up on the heights of Abraham close to 
Quebec. This disconcerted all his plans. In haste he led his forces 
across the Charles river, formed them with their backs to Quebec, 
and attacked the English army. The EngHsh won. Wolfe was 
killed in the fight, but before he died he knew that his men were 
victorious. Montcalm was mortally wounded during the retreat, 
and died the day after the battle. This victory laid Canada at the 
feet of England, completely destroyed the French power in North 



350 



Geoj'ge II, 



[1760. 



America, and gave the future of that continent into the hands of the 
English colonists. 

Within a year a similar victory destroyed the French hopes in 
India. In 1760 Colonel Eyre Coote, commanding an English force, 

Battle of t)eat a French army at the battle of Wandewash, near 
Wandewasii. Madras. In this battle no Sepoys were engaged, 
but only European troops. Hitherto the natives had thought the 
French to be better soldiers than the English, but the battle of 
Wandewash changed their opinion, and inclined them to favour 
the English as the winning side. These two battles, Quebec and 
Wandewash, may be regarded as having decided the long rivalry 
between the English and French in America and^ Asia respectively, 
and mark an epoch of the very first importance in the growth of the 
English empire. 

Deatii of I^^ ^^ midst of these victories old George II. died 

George II. suddenly, in his seventy-seventh year, and was 
succeeded by his grandson, George III. Several good sayings of 
George II. are remembered. When some one told him that Wolfe 
was mad, he replied, " I wish he would bite some of the other 
generals." 



CHIEF GENERAL EVENTS OF THE TIME OF 
GEORGE /. AND GEORGE II. 



■Riot Act passed 


.. 1715 


Septennial Act passed 


.. 1716 


Peerage Bill defeated 


.. 1719 


South Sea Bubble 


.. 1720 


Walpole Prime Minister 


.. 1721 


Excise Bill proposed 


.. 1788 


Calendar reformed 


.. 1752 


Militia reorganized 




For battles, see p. 330. 






Walker &^ Boutall sc. 



PART OF NORTH AMERICA TO ILLUSTRATE ITS SETTLEMENT BY THE ENGLISH AND 
FRENCH, THE CONQUEST OF CANADA AND THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 



CHAPIER m. 

Geoege III., 1760-1820 (60 years). 
Bom 1738 ; married, 1761, Charlotte Sophia of Mecklenburg- 

Strehtz. 

Chief Characters of the Reign (First part). — William Pitt, Earl of Chatham ; 
the Earl of Bute ; George Grenville ; John Wilkes ; the Marquess of 
Rockingham ; Edmund Burke ; the Duke of Grafton ; Charles Towns- 
hend ; Lord North ; George Washington ; General Burgoyne ; Lord 
Cornwallis ; Sir George Savile ; Lord Rodney ; General Eliott ; Lord 
Shelburne ; William Pitt the younger ; Charles James Fox ; the Duke 
of Portland ; Warren Hastings. 

Geoege III. was at his accession twenty-two years of age. He 
had many advantages over his two predecessors. He was a 
Character of thorough Englishman, and, as he said himself, he 
George III. a gloried in the name of Britain." He spoke English 
as his native tongue, and he was fond of all things in which 
Englishmen delight ; but his character had many defects. Unfor- 
tunately, his education had been neglected. He had not been 
trained in broad views, which would have raised him above party 
feeling, as an English king should be. His chief tutors had been 
Tories, and their views were opposed to those of the great Whig 
ministers who had just made England so glorious. Moreover, he 
had been set against the system lately in use, by which the king 
chose his ministers from that party which was most powerful in 
Parliament. He wished to name his own ministers and to choose 
his own policy. In short, he wanted not only to reign, but also 
to govern. 

In his dislike to the rule of the Whig ministers George was by 

no means alone. Since the accession of the Hanoverian kings, 

Power of the ^lie chief power had really been in the hands of a 

Whig families, few Whig families, who had been very jealous of 



1V60.] Newcastle. 353 

admitting even such able Whigs as Pitt and Fox into their ranks. 
The power of these families rested partly on the memory of their 
achievements, partly on tlie influence which they had acquired 
in Parhament. In those days many of the boroughs which sent 
members to Parliament were exceedingly small, some because they 
had deca^^ed since members were first given to them, some because 
they had always been small and had been created in order that 
they might be under the influence of the crown. Such places were 
called rotten boroughs. The power of nominating their Rotten 
members was usually in the hands of the crown or of . ^orougias. 
some neighbouring landowner, or was sold to the highest bidder. A 
few years later than this, it was asserted that 200 members of Parlia- 
ment were returned by places with less than 100 electors, and that 
357 members were nominated by 154 patrons. Walpole and the 
Pelhams had organized the Whig party so thoroughly by the use 
of the crown influence, that the Whig families were able to pursue 
their own course without regard to the wishes of the king, as 
was shown by their forcing Pitt upon George II. This system 
George meant to attack, for he wished to break up party and to 
govern by men, and he hoped to have the sympathy of the great 
body of electors, who had little more influence than he had 
himself. 

On his accession, however, George found in office the Pitt and 
Newcastle administration, which was so strong in the country 
through the victories of Pitt, and so powerful in The Pitt and 
Parliament through the influence of Newcastle, that Newcastle 
its position seemed almost impregnable. George's tion broken up. 
first step was to get Lord Bute, a Scottish Tory, who had managed 
his household, made Secretary of State. A favourable chance soon 
led to Pitt's retirement. He had information that Spain was coming 
to the assistance of France, and wished to declare war at once; 
but as he was unable to move his colleagues, he resigned in disgust. 
As Pitt foretold, Spain herself declared war, and the result of the 
delay was to lose us an excellent chance of attacking the Spanish 
fleet. This incident increased Pitt's reputation in the country. 
Newcastle's resignation soon followed that of Pitt. It had been his 
practice to use the crown's power of promoting to office as a means 
of keeping together the Whig party ; but George insisted, as was 

2a 



354 



Geors:e III. [itgs- 



legally his right, in making these appointments himself ; so New- 
castle, finding his power midermined, sent in his resignation. In 
this way the king, within two years of his accession, broke np the 
glorious Whig ministry of Pitt and Newcastle, and replaced it 
by another, under the premiership of Lord Bute, a man of no 
political experience whatever, who was simply a personal friend of 
the king. Bute became Prime Minister in 1762. 

The war against Spain was fairly successful. Following Pitt's 

plan, we attacked her colonies and took Havannah, the capital 

of Cuba, and Manilla, the capital of the Philippine 

spanisii Islands ; but George and Bute had no heart in the 

colonies. ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^ i^^^ could to terminate it, without 

much regard to the interests either of England or her allies. In 
1763 peace was made at Paris between England, 
Peace of ar s. •p^.g^^^g^ Spain, and Portugal. England secured 
Canada, Tobago, Dominica, St. Vincent, and Granada; but we 
gave up Martinique, to which we had been selling £300,000 worth 
of goods a year, and also Havannah and Manilla. Pondicherry, taken 
in 1761, was also restored to the French. The King of Prussia, whose 
efforts in Germany had enabled Pitt to gain his successes in the 
colonies, was abandoned and his subsidy withdrawn. The terms of 
this treaty were universally condemned by the Whigs ; but Henry 
Fox changes '^^^■i who had gone over to the side of Bute and the 
Bides. king, managed, by bribery and corruption of all kinds, 

to secure a large majority for it in the House of Commons. For 
this service he was raised to the peerage as Lord Holland, while 
the peers who opposed him were deprived by the court of their 
lord-lieutenancies, and private persons of all ranks who dared to 
support the Whigs were turned out of the posts which they held 
under the crown. These acts, however, only raised a storm of 
Buteobngedto indignation against the court, and when Bute pro- 
resign, posed to pay for the war by a tax on cider, he en- 
countered such a flood of abuse that he was forced to retire from 
office. Though Bute retired from office, he had still great influence 
with the king, so that the witty Lord Chesterfield said " that the 
pubhc still saw Lord Bute through the curtain, which, indeed, was 
very transparent." 

The king replaced Bute by Pitt's brother-in-law, George Gren- 



1763.] 



Bute- 



■ George Gre?iville. 



355 



ville,! who brought with him Lords Egremont and Halifax. By 
this time George had succeeded in organizing in 
the House of Commons a party called the king's ministry, 
friends, who were not attached to either Whigs or The king's 
Tories, but voted with or against the king's ministers friends, 
exactly as they were ordered by the king himself. This manoeuvre 
on the king's part made government almost impossible. The only 
way in which it could have been defeated was by the united action 
of the Whig party, which was still the most powerful body in Parlia- 
ment. This, however, was impossible, because their great success 
in the last reign had divided the Whigs into sections. Some followed 
Pitt ; others obeyed the Marquess of Rockingham ; a third section 
was led by the Duke of Bedford; and a fourth followed George 
Grenville. These sections could never make common cause, so the 
king was able to defeat them in detail. For a time Grenville held 
his own by the support of the king's friends, and an attempt was 
then made to get Pitt to join him. This failed, so an alliance was 
made with the Bedford party, which secured Grenville's ascendency 
till 1765. 

Grenville was not a successful minister. He was a man of 
routine, and not a statesman. His first error was the prosecution 
of Wilkes. John Wilkes, a clever but profligate prosecution of 
man, had stated, in No. 45 of his magazine, the North '^°^^ Wiikes. 
Briton, that the king's speech contained a lie in reference to the 



1 THE PITTS AND GRENVILLES. 

Hester, Countess Temple, = Ricliard Grenville. 

I 



W. Pitt, 
created 
Earl of Chatham. 



= Hester 
Grenville. 



Earl George Grenville, 
Temple, 
d. 1779. 



= Elizabeth, 
daughter of 
Sir William 
Wyndham. 



John, Earl of 
Chatham. 



William Pitt, 

Prime Minister 

1783-1801, 

1804-1806. 



born 1712, 

Prime Minister 

1763-1765, 

d. 1770. 

Earl Temple 

(king's agent 

in 1783). 



William Wyndham Grenville, 

created Earl Grenville, 

Prime Minister 1806-7, 

d, 1834. 



356 George III. ri764- 

King of Prussia. Every one knows that the king's speech is 
written by the king's ministers ; but George chose to regard Wilkes' 
accusation as a personal affront to himself, and insisted that he 
should be prosecuted. The action itself was a mistake, but the 
ministers were also wrong in the way they did it. They arrested 
Wilkes on a general warrant, i.e. a warrant which specifies no name, 
but allows the officers to arrest on suspicion. Moreover, they had 
no right to arrest Wilkes at all. A member of Parliament could 
only be arrested for treason, felony, or breach of the peace, and of 
none of these was Wilkes accused. By these errors the government 
contrived to put Wilkes in the right, and to enlist popular sympathy 
in his favour. Wilkes, under Habeas Corpus Act, claimed to be 
released, and Chief Justice Pratt at once ordered him to be so, on 
the ground of his privilege as a member of Parliament. Wilkes and 
the printers then sued the king's messengers for illegal imprisonment 
under a general warrant, and were successful in obtaining damages. 

The commons, however, voted No. 45 to be a seditious 
expeUed from libel, and expelled Wilkes from the house for having 
Parliament, ^^.-^^gj^ ^^^ pubKshed it. 'This high-handed act, 
which showed that Parhament was no longer the guardian of the 
people's rights, but the agent of the king, caused riots to be made 
in Wilkes' favour ; but, of course, there was no remedy against an 
Act of Parliament. 

Grenville's next blunder was his attempt to tax the American 
colonies. On the surface there was much to be said for this course. 

The late war had freed the colonies from fear of 

atSmpt^?o'tax France, and it seemed only fair that they should 

the American p^y ^j^gjj. g^are of the expenscs. Again, England was 

the only country which did not tax its colonies. 
Eome, Carthage, Spain, Portugal, Holland, and France had all done 
so, and there seemed no reason why England should be an exception, 
especially as she had had to add largely to her debt to pay for a war 
in their defence. On the other hand, the colonists were not unwilling 
to pay their share, but, like other Englishmen, they claimed not to be 
taxed except through representatives, and no members for the colonies 
sat in the English House of Commons. However, in 1764 Grenville 
passed an Act imposing customs duties on the American colonies, and 
gave notice that it was to be followed by a Stamp Act. At the same 



1766.] George GnnvUle — Rockhigham. 357 

time, he irritated the colonies by trying to put a stop to the prac- 
tice of trading with the Spanish settlements, in which our colonists 
had long indulged to the great annoyance of the Spaniards. The 
news of these measures caused great excitement in America, and no 
less than six of the thirteen colonies protested against The 'Stamp Act 
the Stamp Act; but in spite of this the act was passed. 
passed. B3'' the Stamp Act the government was able to levy a tax 
on all such transactions as giving receipts, cashing cheques, and 
leaving money by will. This is done by means of a stamp which 
is bought from the government and attached to the document, 
without which the transaction is illegal. This was the first attempt 
of the government to levy an inland revenue as distinct from 
customs. The colonists met this law by obstinately refusing to use 
the stamped paper. 

Things were in this state when Grenville left office in 1765. He 
had never been a favourite at court, as his long speeches bored 
the king, and George soon made an excuse for dismissing him. 
The king then applied, through his uncle the Duke of Cumberland, 
to Pitt ; but the negotiations broke down. The duke next addressed 
the Marquess of Rockingham, and he and his friends The 

agreed to form a government. As, however, they ^dmSStr™ 
were opposed by the other sections of the Whigs, and tion. 

had to rely for support on the king's friends, they were necessarily 
very weak. Under these circumstances the Rockingham Whigs 
only held office for a year ; but during that time they repealed the 
Stamp Act, and also passed a resolution declaring general warrants 
to be illegal. While repealing the Stamp Act, however, they were 
careful to pass an act stating that England has authority over the 
colonies both in legislation and taxation. The repeal of the Stamp 
Act was mainly carried through the efforts of Edmund Burke, the 
wisest statesman of his time, in whom Rockingham had great con- 
fidence, and of Pitt, who made a magnificent speech, in which he 
pointed out that the trade of America was worth £3,000,000 a year 
to England, and that we were risking this sum for a miserable pittance. 

In spite, however, of the support which he gave to the govern- 
ment in this case, Pitt was no good friend to Rock- 
ingham. Like the king, Pitt was no admirer of party 
government in the strict sense of the term ; but always advocated, 



35S George III. ti^ee- 

as the Patriots had done in the time of Walpole, the formation of 
a government which should include all sections of opinion. The 
Eockingham party was so small, that Pitt now saw his chance of 
effecting a coalition against it, and so in 1766 he united with the 
king to turn out Rockingham. A strong government was then 
formed under the Duke of Grafton, one of Rockingham's Secretaries 
of State, as nominal head, and Pitt himself took the office of Lord 
Privy Seal, and went to the House of Lords as Earl of Chatham. 
Great things were hoped from this administration, but it was 
unlucky from the first, and in the end turned out a complete failure. 
Pitt's removal to the Upper House was a mistake. It weakened 
his power, as he could no longer sway the House of Commons by 

Pitt becomes his eloquence, and it lost him his title of the "Great 
and*re«re?i^o Commoner," in which he had gloried, and deprived 

private life, him of some of his reputation for disinterestedness. 
Worse than that, he had hardly assumed power when he fell ill. 
How ill he was will never be known, but he first refused to see 
his colleagues, and then to answer letters, and finally retired to 
Bath, and took no share in public business. Left thus without 
a head — for Grafton had neither influence nor ability — the ministry 
had no fixed policy, and soon fell into complete disorder. In 
the teeth of Pitt's declaration, Charles Townshend, the Chan- 
cellor of the Exchequer, put a number of small cus- 

Taxes on . . 

American toms duties on American imports, the total produce 
imports. ^£ which taxes was only estimated at £40,000. 
This action revived the irritation which had been appeased by the 
repeal of the Stamp Act, and as the government was still insisting 
upon the scheme of stopping smugghng, ill feeling reached a high 
pitch. Soon after passing this measure Townshend died, and was 
succeeded by Lord North. Shortly afterwards Lord Chatham 
recovered, but his first act was to resign his post. 

In England the ministry went equally wrong. In 1768 there was 

a general election, and Wilkes was elected by the county of Middle- 

Wiikea sex. The king was determined that he should not 

re-elected. \^^^q ^jg ge^t, and the government, under Iiis influence, 
ordered Wilkes to be arrested as ah outlaw for his former libels. 
Riots so violent followed that in London alone twenty people were 
killed by the soldiers, and Wilkes became the hero of the mob, who 



1769.] Grafton — North. 359 

at this time were tliorouglily discontented with the state of affairs. 
The fact was that George's scheme was beginning to bear its fruits. 
He had now successfully wrested the government from the hands of 
the Wliig leaders, and had got a ministry which would do what he 
wished ; but unfortunately he had not the abihty to be a successful 
despot, and the more personal power he had the more things went 
wrong. The government, under his guidance, became thoroughly 
unpopular, as was shown by the pubhcation in 1769 of the first 
of "The letters of Junius," which appeared in the •■ ine Letters 
Pullic Advertiser. The real name of their author °^ Junius." 
was never ascertained, though it is now generally thought that 
they were written by Sir Philip Francis, then a clerk in one of the 
government offices. They attacked the government in coarse and 
violent language, but with biting sarcasm and admirable skill, and 
they were read all over the country. 

Not satisfied, however, with preventing Wilkes from taking his 
seat, the Commons, under the lead of the king's friends, actually 
tried him for a new libel, expelled him from the wiikea 
House, and ordered a new election for Middlesex. ^^^g^^oiJe."* 
Of course Wilkes was re-elected ; but the Commons 
held him incapable of sitting, declared the election void, and 
ordered a new one to be held. Again Wilkes was re-elected, and 
then at the fourth contest the Commons actually Again 
declared that his opponent. Colonel Luttrell, had been re-elected, 
chosen, though he had only gained 296 votes to 1143 given to 
Wilkes. This concluded the contest for the moment, but the 
attacks which poured in upon Grafton from all sides were so violent 
that he retired, and his place was taken by his Chancellor of the 
Exchequer, Lord North, a man of great administrative ^^^,^ North 
ability and an excellent debater, but wholly under the becomes Prime 
king's influence. George had, in fact, succeeded in 
reducing the government to the ideal at which he had aimed, while the 
clever use he had made of the crown influence had gained him such 
a following in the House that his opponents were almost powerless. 

It was evident by this time, from the reception of " Junius' Letters," 
that the House of Commons had become very un- publication of 
popular, and the Commons were, therefore, more than debates. 
ever jealous of any publication of their debates, which had been 



3^0 George III. [1771^ 

distinctly declared to be a breach of privilege in 1728. In spite of 
this declaration the debates had been surreptitiously reported under 
false names, under the title, for instance, of " Debates in the Par- 
liament of Lilliput," a name taken from "Gulliver's Travels." Of 
late, however, this disguise had been thrown off, and in 1771 the 
Commons made a vigorous attempt to prevent the practice, by 
ordering the arrest of one of the printers. The man was a liver}^- 
man of London, and denied the authority of the House, and he was 
backed by the authorities of the city, who arrested the messenger 
of the Commons and brought him before the Lord Mayor and 
Aldermen, one of whom was Wilkes. By them the printer's quarrel 
was taken up, and the Commons were foiled. Since that time the 
publication of debates, though still asserted to be a breach of privilege, 
has gone on with only occasional interruptions. 

The first act of the new ministry was an attempt to conciliate the 
colonies by withdrawing all the customs duties except that on tea, 

A ^4. ^j. which was retained in order to show the right of 

Attempt to , ... 

concmate the Parliament to tax the colonies. This might have 

satisfied the colonists at first, but their views were 

now enlarged, and it was the principle, and not the money, that 

they now cared about. In 1773 Lord North passed an act which 

altered the government of India, and, to help the East India 

Company, he allowed it to bring certain tea, duty free, into Eng- 

Repressive ^^^^^Ij ^"^^ ^0 export it to America, subject only to 

measures the small dutv enforced there. However, when the 

against the 

American tca-ships reached Boston, they were boarded by a 
CO onists. ]3ody of colonists disguised as Indians, and the tea 
was flung into the water. This lawless act roused the government 
to vigorous action, and to punish the people of Massachusetts, of 
which Boston was the capital, two acts were passed, by the first 
of which the Constitution of Massachusetts was annulled, and the 
colony put under the absolute power of the crown; by the second 
the custom-house was taken to New Salem, which was much the 
same as removing the trade of Liverpool to Preston, or that of 
London to Gravesend. The object was to ruin the Boston merchants 
bj'- preventing goods being landed there. This action brought 
matters to a crisis, for all men who understood colonial feeling 
knew that the colonists would rather fight than submit. Unfortu- 



it^-s.j North. S6i 

natel}^, the mass of Englishmen were profoundly ignorant of the 
colonies. There had for a long time been little emigration from 
England to America ; there was very little passing to and fro, for in 
those days the voyage took six weeks ; and Parliament refused to 
pay attention to the warnings of Chatham and Burke, the only 
statesmen who were really competent to advise in the matter. 

After these repressive measures had been passed, the other colo- 
nies came to the assistance of Massachusetts, and a Congress was 
summoned at Philadelphia which was attended by ^ ^.^^ 

representatives from all the states but Georgia, which unite against; 
had only been founded in 1732. One of the leaders ^^ ^^ 
of Congress was George Washington, who had distinguished himself 
in the old war against the French. He said he would himself raise 
a thousand men to help the men of Boston. Meanwhile the Massa- 
chusetts assembly, instead of dispersing, as ordered by the governor, 
had kept together, and withdrawn to Concord, where it began to 
raise troops and to collect supplies. In 1775 an attempt to seize 
these led to the first fighting at Lexington, and in it the colonists, 
who were excellent irregular soldiers, got the advantage, and soon 
afterwards seized Bunker's Hill, which was so situated that it com- 
manded Boston. From this they were expelled by the English, but 
at a great sacrifice of life, and then the war began in real earnest. 

The colonies were divided into three groups — the northern or New 
England colonies comprising Massachusetts, Khode Island, Con- 
necticut, and New Hampshire, which were in origin ^^^ \,\iXQQ 
Puritan ; the central. New York, Pennsylvania, New groups of 
Jersey, and Delaware, lay near the Hudson and 
Delaware rivers, on territory much of which had originally been 
Dutch, but had been settled by English colonists since 1664; and 
the southern, Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, 
which were slave-holding states. The first danger the English 
had to fear was a general rising of their American states ; but an 
invasion of Canada by the colonists proved a failure, for such 
fair laws had been given to the French settlers that they remained 
true to their allegiance. , 

Tliis danger being averted, the English applied themselves to 
the conquest of the New England states ; but in this Declaration of 
they failed, for George Washington, who had been independence. 



362 George II L 11776- 

appointed commander-in-chief by the colonists, seized Dorchester 
Heights, which completely commanded Boston, and Sir Wilham 
Howe was forced to withdraw. Encouraged by this event. Congress 
boldly declared the United States to be independent of England, 
and drew up a constitution for their goA^ernment. The English 
then changed their base of operations to New York, and tried to 
secure the lines of the Hudson and Delaware, in order to cut the 
states in two. In this they were partially successful, for they drove 
Washmgton from Long Island and New York, and in 1777 they 
beat him at Brandywine Eiver, and took Philadelphia, the capital of 
Pennsylvania. To make their victory complete, it was arranged 
that General Burgoyne should march from Canada down the river 
Hudson, and join hands with General Clinton, who was to advance 
from New York. Unfortunately, Chnton was so slow that Burgoyne, 
Defeat at when he had advanced about half-way, found himself 
Saratoga. surroundcd by an overwhelming force, and was 
obliged to surrender at Saratoga Springs. 

The disaster at Saratoga was the turning-point of the war. Hither- 
to it had been thought either that England would easily beat the 
France, Spain colonists, or that a reconciliation would be effected, 
and Houand But now France, believing that the colonists would 

reco!?nize the . 

independence be Successful, in order to revenge herself upon England 
meiica. £^^ ^j^^ j^^^ ^^ Canada, recognized the independence of 
the States, and was joined by Spain in 1779, and by Holland in 
1780. England thus found herself face to face, not only with her 
revolted colonists, but with the three great naval powers of Europe, 
and from that moment her chance of success was small. 

When France joined the colonists, some of the Whigs, under the 
Duke of Kichmond, advised that we should ourselves acknowledge 

Chatham the independence of our colonies ; but this view was 

inSndenJe distasteful to Burke and Chatham, who had all along 

of America, adviscd Conciliation — especially to Chatham, who had 

done more than any other statesman to build up the empire in 

America, and was aghast at the idea of it being so soon ruined. 

Death of ^0 strong was his feeling on the subject, that while 

Chatham. opposing the Duke of Richmond in the House of Lords, 
he fell down in a fit on the floor of the House, and was carried 
home only to die. Chatham's protest, however, was so far successful 



1780.J Noi'th. 363 

that the war, which was now as much against France as against the 
colonies, was continued. 

Meanwhile, the disasters into which the king's government was 
plunging the country had aroused a spirit of opposition. Opinions 
differed as to the best means of bringing the ad- Economical 
ministration of the country into accord with the ^men^ary " 
wishes of the people. Some thought that the remedy reform, 
lay in diminishing the king's command of money, others in 
taking away members from the rotten boroughs and giving them to 
populous towns and to counties. These two schemes were called, 
respectively, Economical and Parliamentary reform. The first was 
advocated by the Eockingham Whigs, whose spokesman in the 
House of Commons was Edmund Burke ; the second, by Lord 
Chatham and his friends. The king and Lord North had most 
influence in the small boroughs, while Eockingham relied upon the 
counties, and Chatham on the large towns, especially on London. 

In 1780 the advocates of economical reform received great 
support by the presentation of a petition from the freeholders of 
Yorkshire, demanding a reduction in the salaries of Great York- 
officials and the abolition of sinecure offices, which shire petition, 
had simply been used as means of bribery. No less than twenty- 
three counties supported the Yorkshiremen, and Burke was en- 
couraged the same year to bring in a bill for economical reform, 
which, however, failed to pass. Thwarted in this way. Dunning 
brought forward a motion " that the power of the crown has 
increased, is increasing, and ought to be diminished," and carried 
it by a majority of 233 to 215. Next year Burke brought in 
another bill for economical reform, but was again defeated by 
the government. 

Meanwhile the party who favoured Parliamentary reform were not 
idle. The first motion on the subject was made by Sir F. Dashwood, 
a Tory, in 1745, in the midst of the Jacobite re- projects for 
bellion. It was so ill timed that nothing came of it, reform, 
but in 1770 Lord Chatham suggested the giving of a third member 
to each county ; and in 1776, Wilkes, who had been allowed to take 
his seat in 1774, brought forward a motion on the subject, which 
was lost without a division. In 1780 the Duke of Eichmond 
introduced a bill into the House of Lords providing annual Parlia- 



364 George III. utSo- 

ments, manliood suffrage, and electoral districts, but was of course 
defeated. These abortive attempts served the purpose of keeping, 
the reform of Parliamentary representation before the country. 

In 1778 the gradual awakening which was shown in the agitation 

for economy and the proposals for reform was also manifested by 

the passing of a measure introduced by Sir George 

saviie's Savile, a member for Yorkshire, for the relief of the 

thTreHef o^ Roman Catholics from some of their disabilities. By 

tiie Roman it the laws Were repealed which forbade their priests 

to say mass, or their laymen to acquire land by 

purchase. Unhappily, these very proper concessions raised a 

storm of excitement in the country, in which the anti-Catholic 

feeling was still very strong. Anti-Popish riots at once occurred 

The Gordon ii^ Scotland, and in 1780, when Lord George Gordon, 

riots. President of the Protestant Association, presented a 

petition to Parliament against concession to the Roman Catholics, a. 

riot broke out in London, in which the prisons were opened, chapels 

gutted, and property destroyed to such an extent as probably 

London had not witnessed since Cade's rebellion in 1450. For 

nearly four days the rioters had possession of the streets, and it was 

only the firmness of the king himself, who insisted that the soldiers 

should fire on the mob, which prevented the disaster from being 

still more terrible. These riots, moreover, were of great importance 

afterwards, for when the French Revolution broke out and disorders 

occurred in Paris, orderly f)eople thought of the Gordon riots, and 

determined that, come what might, such things should not again 

occar in London. A vivid description of these riots is given in 

Dickens' " Barnaby Rudge." 

All this time the ministers had been doing their best to hold their 

own in Europe and America. As soon as Spain joined the war, 

Siege of ^ great attempt was made, by a united army and fleet 

Gibraltar. Qf French and Spaniards, to take Gibraltar ; but 
Governor EHott nobly defended his charge, and by burning the 
enemy's batteries by means of red-hot shot, kept his assailants at 
bay. In 1780 Admiral Rodney defeated the Spanish fleet off Cape 
St. Vincent, and threw supplies into Gibraltar, which with this 
assistance managed to hold out until the siege was finally raised. 

In America, however, Washington was so formidable that in 



1783.] North — Rockmgha7?t. 365 

1778 we were obliged to evacuate Philadelphia, and make New 
York our head-quarters, and remain for the most part ^^^ English 
on the defensive. In 1780 a gloom was cast over evacuate 
the whole army by the sad fate of Major Andre, an 
English officer, who had been ordered to negotiate with Benedict 
Arnold, an American general, who offered to desert his countrymen. 
Andre had gone at night to the American lines in uniform, but 
when day broke he was persuaded to change his clothes, and, being 
captured within the American lines without his uniform, was hanged, 
as a spy. Arnold deserted, but did little good to his new friends. 

In 1780 it was determined that part of the army, under Lord 
Cornwallis, should leave New York and land at Charleston, in 
South Carolina, and try to secure the Southern States. At first 
Cornwallis was successful, and Lord Kawdon won the battles of 
Camden in 1780, and of Guildford in 1781. He then marched along 
the coast towards New York, much as Burgoyne had tried to do 
along the Hudson river, but was hemmed in at surrender at 1 
York Town by General Greene, and, as the English York Town, 
fleet was not at hand, was forced to surrender. This great disaster 
brought the fighting on land to a virtual close, but the English still 
continued the naval war against the three European states. Eodney 
was fortunate enough to take St. Eustatia, a rich West Indian Island, 
from the Dutch, but tlie French soon captured it, and in 1782 the 
Spaniards seized Minorca. It seemed as if England had not only 
lost the command of the sea, but was going to be stripped of her 
colonial empire. 

Under these circumstances Lord North would gladly have made 
peace, but George clung obstinately to war. The House of 
Commons, however, was less obdurate. When the Resignation of 
news of the loss of Minorca came. North's majority i^ord North, 
dwindled rapidly, and in March he resigned, after an administration 
of twelve years. Lord North was succeeded by a docking-ham's 
ministry composed of members of the two chief Whig second 
parties. Kockingham was Prime Minister, and brought "^^^^ ^^' 
with him the son of Lord Holland, Charles James Fox, who had 
established his reputation as one of the greatest debaters in the 
House of Commons, Lord John Cavendish, Burke, and Sheridan. 
Chatham's friends were represented, by Lord Shelburne, Secretary 



366 George III. ti78s. 

of State, Lord Camden, formerly Chief Justice Pratt, and Dunning. 
Lord Kockingham also offered a post to William Pitt, second son of 
Lord Chatham, who, though only twenty-three, had made a great 
name in the House ; but it was declined. 

In accordance with Whig principles, the operations against the 

Americans were discontinued; but against France, Spain, and 

Neg-otiations Holland war was waged as before. Fortunately, 

for peace. Rodney, in April, defeated the French admiral, 
Count de Grasse, in the West Indies, and in September General 
Eliott beat off a grand attack of the French and Spaniards, and the 
siege of Gibraltar, which had lasted three years, was abandoned. 
These victories much improved the prospects of a satisfactory 
peace, for which negotiations were set on foot. 

Rockingham's second administration carried out the plan of 

economical reform, which his party had so long advocated in 

Economical opposition. By a bill brought in by Burke for the 

reforms, reform of the civil list, the private expenditure of 
the crown was carefully regulated. It was divided into eight 
classes, and reductions were made to the extent of £72,000 
annually, by abolishing useless offices. At the same time, an act 
was passed excluding persons who held contracts to supply the 
government with any articles, from sitting in the House of Com- 
mons, by which a frequent means of indirect bribery was abohshed. 
Another act forbade revenue officers to vote in elections, and as 
it was shown that no less than 11,500 officers were electors, and 
that seventy elections depended on their votes, this was a great 
blow to the influence of the crown. At the same time William 
Pitt, in pursuance of the principles of his party, 

Pitt's motion ' ^ . p t^ t r jj 

for Pariiamen- brought forward a motion lor Parliamentary reform ; 

tary reform, -y^^^^ though Fox was in its favour, reform had never 

been favoured by Burke, and the motion was rejected by 161 to 141 

— figures which show that it received very considerable support. 

By another resolution all the former proceedings in connection with 

Wilkes' election for Middlesex were expunged from the journals 

of the House of Commons. 

During the American war matters in Ireland had reached a very 

state of critical state. We saw how the Irish Parhament 

Ireland. simply represented the Protestants, who were an 



178S.3 Rockingham— Shelburne. 367 

insignificant minovity of the people of Ireland, and how the right 
of legislating for Ireland had been completely secured for the 
English Parliament by the Act of 1719. The Protestants also 
complained that, while the native Irish manufacture of frieze was 
unmolested, the attempt to introduce the English woollen trade 
had been repressed since 1699, while the Ulster linen industry 
had not been encouraged. This state of things caused great discon- 
tent, as was shown b}^ the agitation against Wood's halfpence ; 
but, on the whole, Ireland had been quiet until the outbreak of 
the American war, and even till the colonists were joined by 
European states. To ^vithstand this formidable coalition the English 
were obliged to withdraw many of their troops from Ireland, and in 
1779 their place was taken by Protestant volunteers, who were 
allowed to enrol themselves, and to whom the government 
furnished arms. 

Encouraged by the example of America, the volunteers soon 
formed the notion of using their arms as the Americans had done, 
to secure concessions for their country, and so for- The 

midable was their attitude that in 1780 the English volunteers. 
Parliament, which had already made some slight concessions, 
annulled a great many of the restrictions on Irish trade. En- 
couraged by this success, the volunteers supported Grattan, a 
member of the Irish Parliament, in drawing up a Qrattan's 
Declaration of Eight, demanding legislative inde- Declaration 
pendence for Ireland. This was accepted by the 
Irish ParHament in April, 1782, and the Enghsh Parliament 
passed measures by which the Act of 1719 was repealed, and 
Poynings' Act was so far modified that the Irish Parliament became 
independent. 

In July, 1782, the Marquess of Rockingham died. From the 
outset, the division in the ministry between Rockingham, Fox and 
Burke, who had the confidence of Parliament, and Lord 

Shelburne, who was the favourite of the king, had be^omes^Sfme 
been very marked. Fox and Burke would have had Minister, 
the Duke of Portland for Premier, and when George appointed 
Shelburne, Fox resigned and Burke followed him. Shelburne 
formed an administration from Chatham's followers, and those of 
the Rockingham Whigs who had not followed Fox and Burke, and 



368 George IIL [i783. 

he boldly gave the post of Chancellor of the Exchequer and leader 
of the House of Commons to young WilHam Pitt. 

The negotiations for peace- having been successful, England 
acknowledged the independence of the United States, and in 1783 a 

Treaty of formal peace was concluded at Versailles between 

Versailles, England, France, Spain, and Holland. By this treaty 
England gave up Minorca to the Spaniards and Tobago to the 
French, but for the most part the foreign possessions remained as 
before. Nothing, however, could make up to England for the loss 
of her American colonies, and as these have increased and multi- 
plied mainly through emigration from England herself, the importance 
of their separation from England has become more and more clear. 
In the matter of trade we have never done so much with them as 
we used to do when they were under our flag. When the United 
States were our colonies, they consumed per man more than £1 
worth a year of Enghsh goods. They have never done so much 
since, and now consume per head about lOs. worth. 

Even before the preliminaries of peace had been settled, Shel- 

bume found himself exposed to the attack both of his old opponents 

and of his recent colleagues. No one had been 

forced to more unsparing in his denunciation of Lord North 

resign. ^|^^^ -p^^^ ^^^ yg^. -p^^ ^^^ Burke united with Lord 

North in order to turn out Shelburne. Nothing equal to this 
Tbe coalition coalition for inconsistency had ever been seen in the 
ministry. English Parhament, and both king and nation were 
wroth at the unnatural alliance. But in the House of Commons 
Fox and North had a large majority, who carried amendments 
in the address to the crown proposed by the government in 
1783 ; and on February 24 Shelburne resigned. To no one in the 
kingdom was the coalition more distasteful than to George himself. 
He looked on North as a deserter, and on Fox as a personal enemy, 
whom he had himself driven from office in 1774. However, after 
vainly attempting various unsuccessful combinations, the king was 
forced to give way, and after thirty-seven days' interval the coalition 
ministry came into power, with the Duke of Portland as nominal 
Prime Minister, Fox and North being the Secretaries of State. 

The king, however, had no intention of allowing this arrangement 
to be permanent, and he found an opportunity of striking at the 



1783.] Porttand. 369 

coalition when they brought in their East India Bill. "We saw that 
the victories of Plassey and Wandewash had shown india under 
the superiority of the English and their Sepoys over ^i^di^^* 
the native soldiers and the French troops respectively^ Company. 
In 1760 Clive came home, but in his absence Major Munro, in 1764, 
defeated the Nabob of Oude at Buxar and entered Allahabad. In 
1765 Clive returned to India, and he made the East India Company 
rulers of an extensive territory by taking over, by a deed granted 
by the Great Mogul, the districts of Bengal, Orissa, and Behar, 
which had been governed by the Nabob of Bengal. The Nabob 
was not deposed, he was only pensioned, and the government was 
still conducted in his name, but the Enghsh company were the 
real rulers. 

Though they had thus, accidentally as it were, become rulers, the 
object of the East India Company was still to make money. With 
such an object as the end of government, it is no 

A ,\ \ r 1 • I, Miserable 

wonder that corruption and oppression everywhere condition of 
prevailed ; and the new rule became a curse to the ® iiatives. 
natives. Famine followed famine, and the Ganges was sometimes 
choked with corpses. At last stories of these deeds reached Eng^ 
land, and the natives found a strong advocate in Edmund Burke, 
who, whether the victims were colonists, Irish, or Hindoos, was 
always on the side of the oppressed. Clive, undoubtedlj'-, did what 
he could to put down corruption ; but the forces against him were 
too strong, and Parliament, urged by Burke, determined to take the 
matter in hand . 

A commission inquired into the case, and in 1773 Lord North 
passed his Eegulating Act, by which the three presidencies of Cal- 
cutta, Madras, and Bombay were united under the 
governor-general of Bengal ; and "Warren Hastings, Reg^uiatiner 
who was then president of the Bengal council, was ° ' 

made the first governor-general. The governor was to be assisted 
by a council, and a high court of justice to administer English law 
was also created. 

The new governor-general was a man of very gi-eat abilitj''j 
thoroughly versed in all the Indian arts of intrigue, warren 
and on the whole he administered the affairs of Hastings, 
the company with great success. The greatest danger to the 

2b 



Zio George III. ri-rs^ 

company's power arose from the ambition of Hyder All of Mysore, 
a robber chief, who had raised himself to independence, and 
threatened to overwhelm Madras. Hastings was driven to the 
last extremity to defend it, but in 1781 Hyder Ali was defeated by 
Sir Eyre Coote at Porto Novo — a name which recalls the old 
Portuguese settlements. To supply money for the struggle, and 
also to pay the company's dividend, Hastings had been forced to 
most unprincipled acts : he had lent English troops for hire to the 
Nabob of Oude, and he had by force and cajolery obtained large 
sums from the Eajah of Benares, and also from the Begums or 
Princesses of Oude. 

When the news of Hastings' high-handed proceedings became 
known. Parliament was again called on to interfere, and had a good 
Bill for dealing Gxcuse for doing SO, for in spite of all Hastings' 

witii the efforts the company was on the verge of bankruptc3^ 

East India Accordmgly, the coalition ministry drew up a bill by 
ompany. -^i^Jch the management of the commercial affairs of 
the company was to be left to the directors; but political affairs 
were to be put under a board of seven persons nominated by 
Parliament for four years, and afterwards by the crown. So far as 
the bill affected the natives, it was good, for it had been drawn 
up by Burke; but the bill was not judged on its merits. The 
opposition saw that its effect would be to give the present majority 
in Parliament the whole control of East Indian patronage, and, in 
fact, would provide them with a gigantic engine of patronage with 
which to secure their ill-gotten power. Under these circumstances 
tlie bill was so distasteful to the king, to the opposition, and to the 
East India Company itself, that George ventured on a course which 
in itself Avas highly unconstitutional; for when the bill came on for 
second reading in the Lords, he authorized Pitt's cousin. Lord 
Bejectionof Temple, son of George Grenville, to say that '•' who- 
the India Bill, ever voted for the India Bill was not only not his 
friend, but would be considered by him as an enemy." This in- 
fluence secured the rejection of the bill, and the king, overjoyed 
by his success, demanded the seals from the coalition officers that 
very night. 

The coalition ministiy was dismissed on December 18, and on 
December 23 it was announced that William Pitt had formed 



1784.] Portland. — Pitt, 371 

a government from the king's friends, and from the old followers 

of Lord Chatham. Then a great struggle ensued. ,„^ 

• IT! ?» T istrueeieto 

George had made up his mmd to dissolve Parliament, place pitt 

but he did not wish to dissolve until the conduct of the 
coalition had been thoroughly understood by the country. On the 
other hand, Fox and North wished to drive Pitt from office as soon 
as possible. But against all their eloquence Pitt stood firm. It was 
in vain that the old ministers joked Pitt on his age, and laughed 
at "a kingdom trusted to a schoolboy's care." In vain they 
petitioned the king to form a strong government, and threatened not 
to vote the supplies or to pass the Mutiny Act. It was soon seen 
that Pitt's was the winning side. The lords supported him, the 
merchants of the city of London, who had been the staunch friends 
of his father, sent him an address. His friends in the House steadily 
increased, and at last, on March 8, a motion of Fox against the 
ministers was carried by one vote only. Two days afterwards the 
Mutiny Bill was passed, and on the 25th Parliament was dissolved. 
The election which followed was a signal triumph for Pitt and 
the king. No less than one hundred and sixty of the friends of 
the coalition lost their seats, and the wits of the day called them 
"Fox's Martyrs" 

The new Prime Minister was a wonderful man. From his boy- 
hood he had been trained to be a statesman, and circumstances 
had given him the opportunity while he was still pittand 
young enough to make use of it. Moreover, Pitt was the king-, 
the first premier since the beginning of the reign who had possessed 
the confidence of both the king and the nation, and consequently 
business was done with an ease and celerity which for a long time 
had been unknown. To his delight George found that his young 
minister in the main agreed with his own views, and had so much 
administrative talent that he could safely be entrusted to carry 
them out by himself. Consequently the popularity of George 
steadily increased. For the first twenty-three years of his reign 
he was undoubtedly very unpopular, for he was regarded as the 
author of the unpopular acts of the government ; but he now began 
to get credit for Pitt's success, and the feeling of the nation under- 
went a complete change. 
,. One of Pitt's first acts was to pass an India Act. By it he 



372 George III. ti784- 

created a board of control, whicli was to be appointed by the 
Pitt's India government of the day. This board was to have 
'^^^^ supreme control over the civil and military adminis- 

tration of the Company. All the patronage, however, was to be left 
in the hands of the Company, but the crown reserved a right of veto 
ill the case of appointments to the chief offices. This settlement 
satisfied both the Company and the country, and remained in force 
till 1858. 

In 1785 Warren Hastings came back from India, and the next 
year Burke moved his impeachment before the House of Lords for 
Impeachment ^"^^^ crimes and misdemeanors, especially on the 

of Warren charge of injustice to the Eajah of Benares. On 

Hastings. . . ,, .. -r^... ,. , . . 

exammmg the evidence, Pitt found it impossible to 
defend Hastings in many respects, but he remained neutral, and Burko 
and Sheridan had the chief management of the prosecution, assisted 
by Sir Philip Francis, the supposed author of "Junius' Letters," 
who had been a member of Hastings' council, and had done his best 
to thwart him. The trial lasted six years, for the lords rarely sat 
to hear evidence. In the end Hastings was acquitted ; but the trial 
was a good thing, as it diffused much knowledge about India, and 
was a warning to other officers not to follow Hastings' footstep e. 
Since Pitt's Act and Hastings' trial, the civil service of India has 
been very different from what it was before. The officials have set 
before themselves a high standard of duty to the natives, and have 
reckoned among their numbers some of the noblest of Englishmen. 

Pursuing his own and his father's pohcy, Pitt advocated the reform 

of Parliament, and in 1785 he proposed to disfranchise thirty-six 

Pitt's reform rotten boroughs, and to give the members to the 

scheme. couiities and to London. The motion, however, was 
not agreeable to the king, and was thrown out by 248 votes to 174. 

It was, however, as a financier that Pitt achieved the most 
striking success. He had had an excellent training in political 
Commercial economy, the science which tries to explain the 
policy. process by which wealth is created and distributed, 
on which subject a great deal of light had lately been thrown by 
the publication of Adam Smith's " Wealth of Nations." This book 
had taught that all nations would benefit by a free exchange of their 
goods, whereas it had been the practice of governments to discourage 



1788.] PitU . 373 

their people from buying from other nations, for fear that they 
would reduce the stock of gold in the country. The new plan was 
called Free Trade. 

Pitt adopted it, and in 1786 he made a commercial treaty with 
France, by which both countries lowered their customs duties, and so 
made a step in the direction of free trade. This treaty was a good 
thing for both countries. Trade increased, and even the revenue 
reaped the benefit ; for as there was less smuggling under the new 
law than under the old, the customs duties amounted in the 
aggregate to a larger sum. In 1785 Pitt attempted to apply the 
same system to the trade between England and Ireland; but 
the English merchants were so hostile to the measure that he 
had to abandon the greater part of it, to the loss of „ ^ 

. ° ^ ' Scheme for 

both countries. Pitt next brought forward a scheme paying off the 
for paying off the National Debt. It was very com- 
plicated, but as at bottom it consisted in raising extra taxes each 
year in order to pay the debt, it left the country as before, and 
after a time it was abandoned, though not till 1828. 

The feeling which prompted the impeachment of Hastings led 
also to an inquiry into the horrors of the slave trade, and in 1787 an 
association was formed for its total abolition. This 

Inqiury about 

could not be done at once, but m 1788 a bill was the slave 
passed for the better regulation of slave-ships, and ^^ ®* 

the next year, through the efforts of Wilberforce, Fox, and Burke, 
resolutions condemning the slave trade itself were introduced. 

The country was completely absorbed in Pitt's useful reforms, 
when an event happened which suddenly threatened to deprive 
Pitt of his power, and to place Fox and Burke 

The kins 

in office. As early as 1765 the king had been becomes 
threatened with madness, and in 1788 he became "^sane. 
completely insane. The case was a difficult one. The natural 
person to be regent was the Prince of Wales, but the prince 
was very unpopular. In 1772, at the instance of TheHoyai 
the king, the Royal Marriage Act had been passed, Miarriag-e Act. 
by which all the descendants of George II. were forbidden to marry 
without the consent of the reigning sovereign. Of this act the 
prince had taken advantage to marry Mrs. Fitzherbert, a Roman 
CathoHc, which by the Bill of Rights would have forfeited the 



374 George III. [i789. 

crown had the marriage been legal. As it was, he could plead 

the Royal Marriage Act against the legality of his own marriage. 

This action was universally disapproved. Moreover, the prince had 

Unpopularity Contracted immense debts, and was addicted to 

oftiieprmce. gambling. More important, however, than all, he 

was attached to Fox, and it was well known that his first act as 

regent would be to dismiss Pitt, and make Fox Prime Minister; and 

Fox, eager for power, declared that the heir-apparent had an 

inherent right to assume the reins of government. In these difficult 

circumstances Pitt behaved very well. He did not refuse to make 

the prince regent, but he declared that Parliament alone could give 

The king bim the title, and that Parliament had the right to 

recovers. jg^y (Jown the Conditions on which he should hold it. 

Happily, before anything was settled the king recovered, and he 

and Pitt became more popular than ever. 

Good fortune as well as good management had attended Pitt. 
Without any effort on his part, his ministry gained the benefit of 
Commercial a great wave of commercial prosperity. Before the 
pro^erity. j-eigQ of George HI., and for nine years into it, 
England had been chiefly an agricultural country, and had exported 
corn. She had some manufactures, chiefly woollen and cotton, but her 
trade in them was not considerable. However, in the latter half of 
the eighteenth century a great change took place. Arkwright 
applied the invention of roller-spinning, by which a strong thread 
was spun by passing through revolving rollers, instead of by the 
slow method of the spinning-wheel; then Plargreaves devised a 
spinning-jenny, by which many threads could be spun at once ; and 
finally, Crompton combined the two inventions in his mule. Hardly 
had this been done, when Mr. Cartwright, a clergyman, invented a 
power-loom, in which machinery did what human hands had had 
to do before. Soon after this had been done, Watt's improved 
steam-engine was used instead of water-power to drive the 
new machines. The demand for new machinery caused a great 
demand for iron, which could now be obtained cheaper than 
formerly, in consequence of the use of pit coal instead of charcoal 
in smelting it ; while Brindley's introduction of canals, and Telford's 
improvements in road-making, facilitated the exchange of goods and 
the bringing of materials to the districts where they were wanted, 



1789.] 



Pitt. 



375 



These improvements in the arts were of more vakie to England 
than the discovery of the richest gold-mine. Fortmiately for 
England, in this country the coal-mines and the iron-mines lie near 
too-ether, and give every facility for the construction of machinery 
and the carrying on of manufactures. The energy of her sons was 
not slow to avail itself of a new source of wealth, and within a very 
few years the nation, which had thought herself ruined by the loss of 
her American colonies, had started upon a career of wealth, which 
enabled her to support without ruin a contest to which the American 
war had been a trifle. 



CHIEF GENERAL EVENTS UNDER GEORGE III,, 

1760-1789. 

Prosecution of Wilkes for No. 45 of the North Briton ... 
East India Company acquires the administration of Bengal 

Stamp Act passed ... 

First of " Junius' letters " 

Middlesex Election dispute 

Open publication of Parliamentary debates begins 
Lord North's Regulating Act for India 

Lord George Gordon riots 

Independence of the United States acknowledged 
Trial of Warren Hastings begins 



1763 

1765 

1769 

1771 

1773 
1780 
1782 

1788 



CHIEF TREATIES^ BATTLES, AND SIEGES, 1 760-1 789. 

Treaty of Paris 1763 

Battle of Buxar ... 

,, Lexington 

„ Bunker's Hill 

Surrender at Saratoga 

Siege of Gibraltar 

Battle of Porto Novo 

Surrender at Yorktowu 

Rodney's victory over Count de Grasse 
Peace of Versailles , :.. ... 



... 1764 

... 1775 

... 1777 

1779-1782 

... 1781 

... 1782 

... 1783 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE WARS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION". 



Chief Characters of the Time. — Pitt ; Fox ; Burke ; Priestley ; Paine ; 
Napoleon Buonaparte ; Lord Howe ; Sir John Jervis ; Lord Nelson ; 
Admiral Duncan ; Sir Sidney Smith ; Lord Edward Fitzgerald ; Lord 
Cornwallis ; Lord Castlereagh ; Addington, afterwards Lord Sidmouth ; 
Lord Grenville ; George Canning ; Lord Mornington, afterwards 
Marquess Wellesley ; Sir Arthur Wellesley, afterwards Duke of 
Wellington ; the Duke of Portland ; Wilberforce ; Lord Liverpool ; 
Perceval ; Sir John Moore ; Sir Francis Burdett ; William Cobbett. 

Chief Contemporary Sovereigns, 

France. Emperor. Prussia. Russia. 

Louis XVL, exe- Francis II., Frederick Alexander I., 

cutedl793. 1792-1805. William IIL, 1801-1825. 

Republic, 1792-1794. Emperor of 1797-1840. 

Directorate, 1794-1799. Austria, 

Consulate, 1799-1804. 1805-1835. 
Napoleon, Emperor, 

1804-1814. 
Louis XVIIL, 1814-1824. 

The contest to which we referred in the last chapter arose out 

of the French Eevolution, an event of such importance that it forms 

as great an epoch as the Reformation, and of such 

Importance of ° ^ .,,,.. 

tiie French far-reaching consequences that we are still hvmg 
eve u ion. ^j^^jgj, ^^ influence of the movement. Roughly- 
speaking, this revolution means the revolt of Europe against the 
privileges left by feudalism. Though the movement began in France, 
all European countries in the last quarter of the eighteenth century- 
retained in their customs much that was feudal in origin. This 
system had been the framework of society in the Middle Ages, and 
had then been most useful; but by degrees society took a new 



1789.] _ PiU, 377 

form, and then its uses disappeared, while, unfortunately, its abuses 
remained. 

In no country were these abuses so bad as in France. 
There society was divided into the privileged and the imprivi- 
leged, who were to one another as one to thirty. The privileged, 
who included the nobles and clergy, had almost all 
the wealth of the country, but paid hardly any of France' 
taxes ; the unprivileged had to pay for both. In ^^^^^^v^^ 
each manor or seigniory the lord of the manor or 
seigneur had certain rights over his tenants. These tenants were 
not like English farmers; they did not hire their lands from the 
landowner by bargain, but they held the land perpetually, subject 
to certain services which they had to perform. They were, in fact, 
in the same position as the villeins in the time of Edward III. In 
England these services had been commuted for money payments, 
but in France they had still to be performed. Such was the 
corvee^ a service done by working on the roads, which was made 
very oppressive. Again, the seigneurs had the sole right of hunting 
and shooting on the manor. In England, if there is much game 
on a farm, the farmer will not offer as much rent for it as if there 
were little ; but in France the services and dues remained the same 
whether there was much game or little. The seigneur, too, might 
keep a dovecot with thousands of pigeons, which preyed on the 
peasant's fields, so that a man had to sow his field three times 
in order to get a crop. In the towns all trades were in the hands 
of corporations or guilds, who would not let any one else enter into 
business unless he paid money to become one of their members. 
In the army, no one except nobles might be officers. In the Church, 
no one but a noble had any chance of rising to be more than a poor 
cure or parish priest. All the best places were kept for the nobles. 
So that in both the country, the towns, and the professions the 
poor and middle classes were prevented from doing the best for 
themselves. Every one who wanted to rise was met and rebuffed 
by privilege. At the very time when this was the case, writers 
like Eousseau and Diderot were preaching a doctrine of universal 
liberty and equality, and all France was stirred with enthusiasm 
for the rebellious American colonists. 

It is impossible to conceive a, much greater contrast, but this 



378 George III, [X7»9. 

state of things miglit have gone on for a long time had not the 

finances of the country got into a state of terrible 
state of "^ ° 

Prencii confusion. Nothing could be worse than the way 

finances. .^ which the taxes were collected. Usually they 

were farmed to speculators, who gave the government a lump sum 

for the tax, and then collected as much as they could. Every 

province, such as Normandy, Champagne, or Provence, had its 

own system of custom-houses on the frontier, and tlie result was 

to prevent trade at home by making it too expensive to take goods 

from one place to another. Moreover, the English, by taking the 

French colonies, had ruined their foreign trade, and consequently 

the country was getting poorer and poorer, and less able to bear 

the taxes. On the other hand, expenses were increasing. Louis 

XIV. and Louis XV. had both fought useless wars, in which they 

spent a great deal and gained little or nothing, while the court was 

the most extravagant in Europe, and the luxury of the courtiers 

was a terrible contrast to the misery around them. 

When a man's expenses increase and his income diminishes, it 

is merely a question of time when he will become bankrupt ; and 

the same thinsr is true of a country. At last a meeting 

A meeting 

of tbe States- was held of the chief men of France to consider what 

enera ca e . j^^^g^ j^g done, and they recommended the king to 

call a meeting of the States-General. This body was something 

like an English Parliament, and had representatives of the clerg}'', 

the nobility, and the commonalty elected throughout the country. But 

the three estates sat in separate houses, so that the king had always 

been able to play off two of the houses against the third. However, 

when the estates met at Versailles, in May, 1789, the Tiers Etat, or 

The Tiers Commons, refused to do business unless all the estates 

Etat obtain gat in One house. After some difficulty they carried 

in the National their point, and as their numbers were equal to those 

Assembly. ^^ ^^ other estatcs together, and some of the nobles 

and clergy took their side, they had a majority in the National 

Assembly, as the united body was called. While this was going 

mi- T^ . t- on, the mob of Paris stormed the Bastille, which 

The Pans mob ' ' 

storm the answers to the Tower of London, and insurrections 

broke out all over the countiy, in which many nobles 

were ill-treated, their manor-houses burnt, and their feudal rights 



1789.] Pitt. 379 

set at defiance. By an act of the National Assembly all privileges 
were abolished, and after a time titles of nobility were done away, 
and the lands of the Church forfeited. 

For the government of the country a constitution similar to that 
of England was set up, to which the king gave his consent. Un- 
fortunately, the new constitution worked badly. The „, 

•^ ' . . . *' The new 

king, who was himself well intentioned, was ill constitution 
advised. The chief nobles and clergy left the country, 
and tried to persuade Austria and Prussia to invade France, and 
to reinstate them in their privileges ; and finally the king himself, 
in 1791, fled from Paris, but had the misfortune to be recaptured and 
brought back to virtual imprisonment. Meanwhile the Legislative 
Assembly, which had succeeded the National Assembly, had fallen 
under the influence of the Corporation of Paris and of the Jacobin 
Club, which contained the most advanced men of the revolutionary 
party. Mirabeau, the ablest of the old members of the Tiers Etat, had 
died, 1791; and finally, when Austria and Prussia united to invade 
France, a fresh revolution occurred. The Tuileries, TheTuiieries 
where the king and queen were, was stormed by the stormed, 
mob ; a frightful massacre was made of the imprisoned Koyalists ; and 
France having been declared a republic, Louis was made a close 
prisoner. The invasion of Austria and Prussia was foiled by the 
cannonade of Valmy in September, 1792 ; but the The king- 
exasperation caused was so great that power rapidly executed, 
fell into the hands of the most revolutionary party, and in January, 
1793, Louis XVI. was executed. 

When the news of the Revolution first reached England most 
people sympathized with it, because they thought that France was 
merely going to do what England had done in the 
seventeenth century, and that the two countries -^hthe^ 
would be better friends under similar institutions „ French 

i. Revolution. 

than they had formerly been, when one was a 
despotism and the other a constitutional monarchy. In thinking 
thus of the Revokition the English made a mistake, because our 
struggle had been a political one between the king and the Parlia- 
ment, and had not been complicated in England by the existence 
of a privileged class ; whereas in France the political question was 
secondary, and tliQ struggle between the privileged and unprivi- 



380 George III. [1790- 

leged classes was of the first importance. The first to perceive 

this was Burke, who in 1790 quarrelled with Fox because the 

latter expressed sympathy with the movement, and at the close 

of the same year he published his "Reflections on 

"Befiections the French Eevolution," in which he foretold that 

ontiieFrencii ^^^ movement would result in the complete destruc- 

Re volution. ' _ ... 

tion of society in France, and the rise on its ruins of 
a military despotism. This book, of which thirty thousand copies 
were rapidly sold, completely altered the impressions of Englishmen, 
and henceforward the upper and middle classes were filled with terror 
of a similar revolution in England. This fear was quite groundless, 
because such privileges as those which had caused the trouble in 
France hardly existed in England, and the king was exceedingly 
popular ; but Burke's followers would be satisfied with nothing less 
than war against France, while at home they resisted all kinds of 
reform, and were ready to take the severest measures to put down 
an imaginary conspiracy. 

This feeling soon showed itself in Parliament. So early as 1790 
Fox's motion for the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts was 

^« ., thrown out by 294 votes to 105, and the subject was 

Effect of the '' ' i m • -« «-. 

panic on not resumed for nearly forty years ; while in 1791 a 

ar lamen , -j^Q^jy. ^f Birmingham rioters destroyed the house of 

the celebrated Dr. Priestley, because he had arranged a dinner in 

celebration of the taking of the Bastille. The next year Thomas 

Paine, who was kno^vn to sympathize with the French, was tried 

and found guilty of seditious writing ; and in 1793, for the better 

prevention of the spread of French opinions, an Alien koX. was 

passed, giving the government power to supervise foreigners resident 

in England, and, if necessary, to remove them. 

Meanwhile Pitt had not been carried away by the prevailing 

desire of a war with France. He was honestly anxious for peace, 

_.,^ , . and in 1790 he succeeded in settling a quarrel with 

Pitt desirous ° ^ 

of maintaining Spain about Nootka (now St. George's) Sound, with- 

peace., ^^^ recourse to war; and even in 1792, so great was 

his confidence in peace, that Pitt, in bringing forward his budget, 

.^^ declared he had good hopes of peace being main- 
Goes on with ^ / p -i - p 
his domestic tained. He also pursued his course of domestic reform, 

reforms. supported a bill for the abolition of the slave trade. 



1795.] 



Pitt. 3^1 



and in 1792 helped Fox to pass a libel bill, by wliicli juries were 
allowed to say, not only whether a hbel had been published, but 
also whether the publication was a libel. Previously the judges had 
claimed to determine what was libellous, so that this Act was a great 
safeguard to liberty. 

However, in 1793, after the death of Louis, Pitt was forced 
into war, and after that further repressive measures were passed, 
and reform became more impossible than ever. The p^^t forced 
same year the Traitorous Correspondence Act was to declare 
passed, while in 1794 Habeas Corpus Act was sus- ressive 

pended for the first time since 1745, and continued measures 
in abeyance for eight years ; and this measure was passe 
backed up in 1795 by a Treasonable Practices Bill, and a Seditious 
Meetings Bill, so that it was quite truly said that, because French- 
men had abused their liberty. Englishmen were deprived of theirs. 
On the other hand, the friends of Parliamentary reform urged that 
the real way to put a stop to discontent was by enlarging the 
interest of the people in the constitution; but Motion for 
Grey's motion for Parliamentary reform was opposed ^'r^f^m ^^^ 
by both Burke and Pitt, and was tiirown out by a opposed, 
large majority. In Scotland, Muir, Palmer, and others were indicted 
for sedition and condemned to transportation, but in London the 
juries acquitted Home Tooke and some of his friends, who were 
accused of treason, and gradually the country recovered confidence. 

When the war against France began, it was thoroughly popular in 
England, and it is certain that Pitt was far behind the rest of the 
country in eagerness to attack France. The unani- popularity of 
mity of the country is shown by the fact that a resolu- *^® ^^^' 
tion brought in by Fox to condemn the war was lost by 270 to 44. 
In carrying on the war, Pitt followed the example of his father, and 
attacked France on land, by sea, and in the colonies. On land he 
did not attempt a great deal, but it was necessary for him to do 
something in support of his allies, the European powers and the 
French Royalists, who had raised insurrections in Brittany and the 
south of France, and for this purpose he several times despatched 
Enghsh troops to the Continent. Like his father, however, he 
believed that he could do France most damage by subsidizing her 
Continental enemies while he made war upon her by sea, and to this 



38a George III. tiTos- 

end he made large grants. In 1793 England, Spain, Holland, Austria, 
The coalition ^^^ Prussia formed the first coalition against France, 

against and the same year troops were despatched to aid the 
allies in Holland, and to assist the royalists of Toulon. 
Neither of these expeditions was very successful. We succeeded in 
destroying the French fleet at Toulon, but had to abandon the har- 
bour, because cannons were placed in such a position as to command 
its entrance ; while the king's second son, the Duke of York, who 
commanded the troops in Holland, was actually defeated at Bois- 
le-Duc. At Toulon Napoleon Buonaparte, a young Corsican officer 
in the French service, distinguished himself by the energy with which 
he rallied the troops and pushed them to the front. 

In naval warfare, however, we did better. At sea the French 
laboured under the disadvantage of having one of their best harbour^^, 
Toulon, on the Mediterranean, and their other, Brest, 
on the Bay of Biscay, while their harbours on the 
British Channel were not large enough to admit very large vessels, 
and had again and again been bombarded by the English. We 
saw that in 1793 the Toulon fleet had been destroyed ; and in 1794, 
on June 1, Lord Howe gained a gi'eat victory over the Brest 
fleet. These two successes for a time disabled the French ; but in 
1795 France was joined by the Dutch and the Spaniards, and 
then the position became very serious. The next year the French 
planned a great expedition to Ireland, but fortunately the fleet was 
dispersed by a storm, and only a few vessels reached Bantry Bay, 
which they left without landing. This was perhaps the most serious 
danger which the English had run, for a French landing in Ireland 
might have raised a formidable insurrection in that country ; but 
in 1797 Sir John Jervis and Commodore Nelson defeated a combined' 
fleet of French and Spaniards off Cape St. Vincent on St. Valentine's 
Day, while Admiral Duncan destroyed the Dutch fleet off Camper- 
down in October. 

Notwithstanding these successes, the year 1797 was a most critical 
year, for between these two battles, mutinies occurred in the fleets 

Mutinies in ^t Spitliead and the Nore. The chief grievance of the 

the fleets. Spithead sailors was that their pay had not been 
raised since the time of Charles II., and that the pursers kept back 
large sums out of their earnings. But, on a promise that their 



1^97.J Pitt. 383 

grievances sLoiild be seen to, tbey returned to tlieir duty without 
difficulty. The mutiny at the Nore was more serious, because some 
of the sailors were infected by republican ideas ; but when they found 
that they had no support on shore, they gradually gave in, and at 
no time offered to take then- ships over to the enemy ; indeed, these 
very sailors formed the greater part of those who won the battle of 
Camperdown, The destruction in turn of the fleets of France, Spain, 
and Holland gave us complete command of the sea, and so enabled us 
not only to take Trinidad from the Spaniards in 1797, 
and Ceylon and Cape Colony from the Dutch in 
1795, but also enabled our ships to sweep the commerce of these 
nations from the sea, and to bring thousands of rich prizes into 
English ports. 

In spite, however, of these great successes, Pitt would have been 
glad to discontinue the war had there been a prospect of durable 
peace. The expenses of the Avar had been exceed- Expenses of 
ingly heavy, and not only had Pitt been obliged to the.war. 
leA^y very heavy taxes, but also to make large additions to the 
National Debt, and in 1797 he was obMged to draw so much money 
from the Bank of England, that it had to be allowed to stop paying 
for notes in cash. These sacrifices weighed very heavily upon all 
classes, and the price of provisions of all kinds nearly doubled. 
Wheat, for instance, which before the war had rarely cost more than 
5O5. a quarter, cost in 1795, 8O5., and in 1801, 1285. Unhappily 
wages, though they rose a little, did not increase in the same pro- 
portion. For instance, a carpenter's wages in 1795 were 25. ^d. a 
day, and in 1800 they were only 2s. lOc?. In 1801 a labourer whose 
wages were 95. a week, could remember the time when Distress in 
for 5s. wages he could buy provisions which now cost *^® country, 
him 26s. hd. In consequence there was a great increase of pauperism, 
and in 1796 the bad practice was begun of allowing the guardians 
to supplement the wages of able-bodied men out of the rates. Con- 
sequently wages ceased to rise, for the farmers, of course, paid the 
same as before, and any increase had to come out of the pockets of 
the ratepayers. Moreover, when the war began, every one expected 
that it would be very short, because France was believed to be 
bankrupt. This proved to be a mistake ; for France got rid of her 
debts by simply repudiating them, while she got plenty of ready 



384 George TIL [1793- 

money by selling the lands of the nobles and clergy, and by issmng 
a paper coinage, and indeed, except at sea, seemed stronger than ever. 

All these things made Pitt very desirous for peace, but unfor- 
tunately the French were still eager for war. After the execution 

The Reign ^f the king, power passed into the hands of the 

of Terror. Jacobins, who first destroyed the power of all the 
upper classes, committing such atrocities that their rule is known 
as the Reign of Terror, and then quarrelled among themselves. 
The result was a series of conspiracies, in which one after another 
the leading Jacobins were killed. Danton was executed in 1794, 
and Robespierre perished the same year. The fall of Robespierre, 
the last of the Jacobins, was brought about by a union of the 
survivors of the middle classes to put a stop to the reign of 
the mob. They estabhshed the Directorate, or rule of five 
directors, and thus made a step towards a return to absolute rule. 
Before long an attempt was made to overthrow this government, 
but the directors appealed to the army, and called in the aid of 

Napoleon Napoleon Buonaparte, who had distinguished himself 
Buonaparte, ^i Toulon, and with his help crushed the rebels. In 
reward for his services, Buonaparte was made general of the French 
army in Italy, where in 1796 he conducted a most brilliant 
campaign against the Austrians and Piedraontese, whom he com- 
pletely defeated, while Moreau, the most distinguished of the 
French generals in the north, was successful in Germany. These 
successes filled the French with a thirst for military glory, and 
though Pitt attempted to negotiate with the directors, the war 
went on as before. 

By this time Buonaparte had begun to aim at setting up a military 

despotism in France, and had already begun to interfere in the 

government, but, his schemes being not yet ripe, he persuaded the 

Napoleon's Directorate, in 1798, to send him to Egypt with a large 

Egyptian army. This expedition opened up before Napoleon's 
mind a long career of glory. He hoped, when he 
had conquered Egypt, either to make his way by Syria to Constan- 
tinople, or possibly, emulating the triumphs of Alexander, to make 
vast conquests in Asia, and to penetrate even to India itself. By 
this means he designed to make France supreme on the shores of 
the Mediterranean, and to carry out the schemes of Dupleix by. 



1739.] Pitt 385 

expelling the English from India and making that country a depen- 
dency of France. At first his plans were successful ; tlie Toulon 
fleet, with Napoleon on board, escaped from the harbour, while 
Admiral Nelson, who was guarding it, had been driven away by 
a storm, and sailed to Malta. At that time this island was in the 
hands of the Knights of St. John, who had held it since 1526. It 
was strongly fortified, and might have held out for months, but 
treachery delivered it to the French, who were thus enabled, with- 
out loss of time, to make their way to Egypt. Meanwhile Nelson 
finding that the French had escaped, and guessing their purpose, 
had gone to Alexandria ; but not finding the French there, he went 
to Sicily for provisions. Before he returned, Buonaparte had landed 
his forces, and beating the Mamelukes, as the race of soldiers who 
ruled Egypt was called, in the battle of the Pyramids, he made him- 
self master of Cairo. 

When Nelson for the second time reached Egypt, in August, 1798 
he found the French fleet drawn up in Aboukir Bay, in the form of 
a crescent, one end of which was close to a promontory r^j^g battle 
which formed one side of the bay. Nelson ordered of the Nile, 
his ships to sail between the end of the French line and the shore, 
and so to attack the ships from the land side. This manoeuvre was 
completely successful, and of the thirteen French ships that begun, 
the action no less than eleven were lost, and the other two were 
subsequently captured. Nelson himself was wounded, and the 
French admiral, Brueys, was killed. The effect of the battle of 
the Nile on the French expedition to Egypt was tremendous. 
Napoleon, with the best of the French armies, was completely cut 
off from France, while the victory itself revived the hopes of the 
allies, and caused the formation of the second coalition ^, 

' The second 

against France. Buonaparte, however, was not to coalition 
be diverted from his scheme. In 1799 he invaded Prance. 
Syria, but was stopped by the fortress of Acre, which Buonaparte 
commanded the road along the coast. Acre was i^"^^'^®^ Syria, 
stoutly defended by the Turks, assisted by Sir Sidney Smith, who 
placed two ships of the line in such a way as to command Buona- 
parte's trenches, and also landed sailors to defend the breach. 
This assistance completely foiled Buonaparte, and though he 
defeated an army of Turks who tried to relieve the town, his 

2c 



SS& George III. [1799- 

storming parties were again and again repulsed, and at last lie was 
forced to give up his scheme of Eastern conquest and to return to 
Egypt. Buonaparte always said of Sidney Smith, "That man 
made me miss my destiny." 

Meanwhile an immense army of Austrians and Russians was 
preparing to invade France, and was joined by an English expedi- 
Napoieon sets ^^°^ under the Duke of York ; but though they were 

up a new at first successful in every encounter, their plans were 
spoilt by the defeat of their centre at Zurich, which 
saved France from invasion. By this time Napoleon, having 
defeated a Turkish army in Egypt, had abandoned his troops and 
made his way to France, where the disasters of the directors, 
contrasted with the story of his achievements, had enhanced his 
reputation. He soon succeeded in eifecting the overthrow of the 
directors and setting up a new government, of which he was the 
head, with the title of First Consul, and he very soon contrived to 
make the central government as despotic as it had been in the days 
of the kings, though of course' the old privileges were not restored. 
In the war. Napoleon continued the success which Massena had 
begun at Zurich. Moreau defeated the Austrians at Hohenlinden, 
while he himself, suddenly crossing the Alps by the St. Gothard 
Pass, came down in the rear of another army of Austrians who 
were besieging Genoa, and beat them at the battle of Marengo. 
After these defeats Austria made peace, and England was left to 
continue the war single-handed. 

In 1800 England captured Malta, which we still retain, and 
in 1801 Abercrorabie, with an English army, defeated the 

Tiie armed French at the battle of Alexandria, and their army 
neutrality, jj^ Egypt was forccd to surrender. Meanwhile Eng- 
land's method of carrying on the war at sea, in which she 
not only insisted on seizing all French goods which were being 
carried in neutral ships, but also as far as possible put a stop to any 
trade with France, had excited the ill will of the neutral states- 
Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and Prussia — who formed what was called 
an armed neutrality. It was greatly feared that this was only a step 
towards joining France, so in 1801 Nelson attacked the Danish fleet 
in Copenhagen harbour, and destroyed or captured the greater part 
of it. This victory resulted in the dissolution of the armed neutrality. 



1802.J Pitt, 387 

By this time both France and England were tired of war. Napoleon 
had little hope of destroying the power of England in the 
MediteiTanean, while the English, now that they had taken most 
of the French colonies, could do little against her on peace of 
land without allies. Peace, therefore, was concluded Amiens, 
at Amiens in 1802, by which England restored her conquests, and 
agreed that Malta should revert to the Knights of St. John. 

Before the treaty of Amiens was made, however, Pitt had ceased 
to be Prime Minister. The causes of his fall arose from events in 
Ireland, and to these we must now go back. After Events in 
Lord Kockingham's concessions in 1782, the Irish Ireland. 
Parliament had been independent,, but as it was composed only 
of Protestants, though the franchise had been restored to the Roman 
Catholics in 1793, it could not be said to represent the Irish people. 
The French Revolution caused great excitement in Ireland, and a 
conspiracy was soon set on foot to try and bring about a cata- 
strophe there. There were then three distinct parties in Ireland — 
the Catholics, forming at least seven-tenths of the nation, who 
wanted emancipation from their disabilities and a share of political 
power ; the Protestants, who, under the name of Orangemen, were 
furious at the bare mention of concession to the Catholics, but who 
were themselves anxious for Parliamentary reform, and the removal 
of the corrupt means by which government secured its influence 
in Parliament; and the Revolutionists, or United Irishmen, who 
included both Catholics and Protestants, and who were eager to over- 
throw the government altogether and establish a republic under the 
protection of France. Placed in the midst of such opposing 
factions, the English lord-lieutenant hardly knew how to act. It 
was impossible for him to take any step without offending one party 
or the other, and he therefore had to confine himself to watching 
the movements of the conspirators. 

As we saw, the French expedition to Ireland in 1796 failed ; but 
the republicans, under the leadership of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, 
Arthur O'Connor, and Oliver Bond, organized an me Irish 
independent insurrection. At the beginning of 1798, insurrection, 
they were suddenly arrested by order of the government, and 
Lord Edward defended himself so vehemently that he was mortally 
wounded. In spite of the capture of their leaders, the insurrection 



388 George III. [i798- 

broke out, and in the south-east of Ireland, in the neighbourhood 
of Wexford, obtained considerable proportions. There the insurgents 
posted themselves on a strong position at Vinegar Hill, from which 
they were only driven by General Lake after a regular battle. 
When the insurrection was all over, a small hodcy of French troops 
landed in Mayo, and, after defeating some militia and yeomanry 
at Castlebar, were forced to surrender to the regular troops. 
After this another French squadron arrived off the coast, in which 
was Wolfe Tone, the founder of the United Irishmen, who had 
acted as agent for the rebels in Paris. This squadron was met by 
some English ships, who captured the greater part of it. Tone was 
taken prisoner and condemned to death, but he saved himself from 
execution by suicide. 

This rebellion convinced Pitt that the best solution of the Irish 
difficulty was to unite the two Parliaments. He hoped to make 
the Union a blessing to Ireland by coupling it with 
the emancipation of the Catholics, who might, he 
thought, safely be members of the United Parliament, where they 
were sure to be in a minority, though he dare not grant them this 
favour in an Irish Parliament, where they would have a majority. 
The proposition of a union, however, was most distasteful to the 
Irish Protestants, who were the virtual rulers of Ireland, and Pitt 
was only able to carry his measure through the Irish Parliament by 
a degrading system of bribery. By the terms of the Union Ireland 
ceased to have a separate Parliament, but sent to the United Parlia- 
ment of Great Britain and Ireland four bishops to sit in the House 
of Lords, twenty-eight representative peers elected for life, and 
one hundred commoners. Irish peers were allowed to be elected 
members of the House of Commons. Free trade between the 
two countries was established, and it was arranged that Ireland 
should only pay £2 of taxes for every £15 paid by England. As 
was to be expected, a union so effected was very unpopular, 
and in 1803., Emmett, a Dublin barrister, who had been engaged 

Emmett's ^"^ ^^ rebellion of 1798, formed a new conspiracy. 

conspiracy. A slight outbreak followed, which was easily sup- 
pressed, and Emmett and some of his friends were convicted and 
executed. 

Lord Cornwallis, the lord-lieutenant, Lord Castlereagh, his 



1803.] Pitt—Addingion, 389 

chief secretary, and Pitt all regarded the passing of an Act of Parlia- 
ment for the relief of the Catholics as part of their bargain witt 
Ireland, and wished further to remove the grievances connected with 
the collection of tithe, and to endow the Koman Catholic clergy. 
In 1801 Pitt proposed to the king a measure for the relief of the 
Catholics ; but George III., being under the impression, quite 

wrongly, that he could not consent to such a measure 

' • 1 . 1 • 1 • • -, -. 1 . 1 Measure for 

without violatmg his coronation oath, and bemg also tiie relief of 

thoroughly averse to the concessions, opposed him. ^^^ <^^*^oiics. 

Pitt and his friends left the government, and the whole scheme 

for coupling the Union with the redress of Irish 

grievances fell to the ground. Pitt was succeeded 

by Addington, Speaker of the House of Commons, whose chief 

colleague was Lord Hawkesbury, afterwards Earl of Liverpool. It 

was this ministry which concluded the treaty of Amiens. 

As usual, war between England and France was accompanied 

by trouble in India. Hyder Ah, the old enemy of Plastings, had been 

succeeded by his son, Tippoo Sahib. The French Trouble 

republicans regarded Tippoo as their ally, called him *^ India. 

Citizen Tippoo, and even established a Jacobin Club- in Ms capital, 

Seringapatam. This conduct, of course, led to a war, and in 1799 

the governor-general. Lord Mornington, directed General Harris to 

invade Tippoo's territory and capture Seringapatam. This was done, 

and Tippoo himself was killed in the assault. Part of his territory 

was annexed, and part was restored to the old Hindoo dynasty. Lord 

Mornington's policy was to conclude treaties with the native princes, 

by which they agreed to receive a British resident, who, while domestic 

affairs were left in their own hands, directed their foreign poh'cy. 

This forward movement aroused the fear of the Mahratta chiefs, who 

ruled over territories which extended from Delhi to the Deccan. 

These chiefs were usually at war with one another, but they now 

united together under Scindia and Holkar, and expelled the Peishwah, 

who was grand-vizier to the head of the race, and nominally ruler. 

The Peishwah made a subsidiary treaty with Lord Mornington, who 

sent his brother. Sir Arthur Wellesley, who had distinguished 

himself at the taking of Seringapatam, to attack them from the south, 

and General Lake from the north-east. Wellesley won the battle of 

Assaye, and Lake that of Laswaree, which reduced the Mahrattas 



39© George III, [isos- 

to subjection, and forced them to conclude subsidiary treaties with 
the English. After this success the Mogul at Delhi became the 
pensioner of the East India Company, which brought almost the 
whole of the Granges Valley and Southern India directly or indi- 
rectly under the Companj^'s sway. 

The treaty of Amiens was little better than a truce, and Napoleon 

had no intention of allowing it to be more. He did not pause for 

_, ^ a moment in his ambitious schemes, but tried to 

Presh. ^ _ ' 

declaration increase French influence in Switzerland and Italy, 
^ ^' and sent agents, under the name of consuls, to England 
and Ireland, whose real object was to make themselves acquainted 
with the resources of these countries and the chance of their 
successful invasion. Even while he was engaged in these intrigues, 
he continually complained of the attacks made upon him in the 
English press, and demanded restraints upon its liberty. The 
English government prosecuted a Frenchman named Peltier, who 
had broken the law, but they refused to alter the law itself. Even 
more serious were the disputes about Malta, which was still occupied 
by the English. Napoleon was determined to regain it, if possible ; 
but the English demanded to retain it for ten years, and this demand 
led to a declaration of war. The new war, which lasted from 1804 
to 1814, was quite different from the former one. The old war had 
been an attack of the monarchies of Europe upon the French 
Republic. In the new one, France, under Buonaparte, was the 
aggressor, and Europe was on the defensive. When the war began, 
the great fear was that England would be invaded before the other 
nations of Europe could come to her assistance, and to meet this 
danger large additions were made to the army and the militia, and 
large bodies of volunteers were raised. 

No sooner had the war begun than there was a general wish that 
Pitt should come back to power. But by this time Addington had 

■e,-.Li. • grown fond of his place, and was by no means willing 

Pitt again ^ _ tf i J o 

becomes Prime to give Way. Accordingly, Pitt, Fox, and Grenville, 
who had been Pitt's foreign secretary, united to 
oppose the ministry, and in 1804 Addington was forced to resign. 
Pitt then became Prime Minister, but the king refused to receive 
Fox, and as Grenville would not take office without him, Pitt was 
obliged to rely upon some of his personal friends and some of 



180S.] Addington — Pitt 391 

Addington's followers, so that his ministry was by no means strong. 
Its chief members were, Pitt's old colleague, Henry Dundas (now 
Lord Melville), the Duke of Portland, and Lord Hawkesbury ; and 
within a year Addington himself came back as Lord Sidmouth« 
Moreover, Pitt promised the king that he would not revive the 
Catholic claims. 

Shortly after Pitt became minister, Buonaparte, who had managed 
to reconcile the French to absolute pow^r by creating a belief in 
plots, under which pretence he had contrived to Napoleon's 
banish his old rival Moreau, and to bring about the ^conauesf^ 
death of the Duke d'Enghien, a member of the royal of England, 
family of France, had had himself proclaimed Emperor, and wished 
to signalize his accession by the conquest of England. To secure 
the assistance of her navy, he allied himself with Spain ; and Pitt, 
following out his old policy, set about forming a third coalition, of 
which England, Austria, and Russia were to be the chief members. 
Napoleon's plan was to send his fleet to the West Indies, in hopes 
of enticing Nelson thither ; if successful, it was at once to return 
to Europe, and, uniting with the Spanish fleet, was to sail for the 
Channel. At Boulogne Napoleon himself collected an immense 
army, which he hoped, by the aid of his fleet, to transport to England 
in Nelson's absence. 

At first Napoleon's plan was successful. Admiral Villeneuve 
escaped from Toulon, joined the Spanish fleet, and reached the 
West Indies, pursued by Nelson. There he should Failure of 
have met the Brest fleet, but that had been unable *^® p^^^- 
to break the blockade ; he therefore returned full speed to Ferrol, in 
Spain, near Cape Finisterre. But by this time the English had learnt 
his movements, and off Ferrol he met a small English squadron, 
under Sir Robert Calder. Calder's fleet was only about half the 
size of that of Villeneuve, so that he was only able to take two 
Spanish vessels ; and VOleneuve escaped into Ferrol. Thence he 
sailed to Cadiz, and meanwhile the greater part of the English fleet 
was collected at Brest, so that Napoleon's whole plan completely 
failed. Indeed, as soon as Napoleon heard that Villeneuve had 
gone to Cadiz, he broke up his camp at Boulogne and marched 
against Austria. 

After a short stay in England, Nelson again started in pursuit 



392 George II L [I805- 

of Villeneuve, and at last found him o£F Cape Trafalgar. In the 
Battle of battle, Nelson, employing the same plan as Rodney 

Trafalgar. ^^^^ ^gQ(j against De Grasse, and Duncan against the 
Dutch at Camperdown, formed his vessels in two columns at right 
angles to the enemy's line, and, sailing upon them in this way, he 
broke their line in two places and threw them into confusion. The 
manoeuvre was completely successful ; the whole of the French and 
Spanish fleet was either sunk, captured, or forced to take refuge in 
Cadiz, where the French vessels fell into our hands at a later time. 
Deatii of Unfortunately, Nelson, whose brilliant uniform made 
Nelson. jjijj^ ^ mark for the enemy's balls, was killed by 
a rifle-shot. Happily, death did not come to him till his work was 
complete. Trafalgar had finished what the victories of the 1st of June, 
St. Vincent, and the Nile had begun. The English fleets were now 
supreme on every ocean, England and her colonies were safe from 
invasion, and her merchants could traffic in security on every sea. 

Had the coalition been as successful on land. Napoleon's career 
might have ended in 1805; but unfortunately the Austrians and 

Disaster at Russians were utterly defeated at the battle of 

Austeriitz. AusterHtz, and this disaster destroyed all hope of 

concludiag the war at present.- Soon after Austeriitz Pitt died, 

worn out by anxiety and hard work. It has been 

Death of Pitt. ., , \ t , -n -. i • 

said that Austerhtz killed mm; but he was too 
great a man for that. Except for the battle of Trafalgar, his 
ministry had been unfortunate. His best friend, Lord Melville, 
had been impeached in Parliament and forced to resign, in conse- 
quence of some irregularities which had been found in the accounts 
of the navy. His health was utterly failing him, and in January, 
1806, just after the news of Austeriitz reached England, he died. 
Though Pitt did not live to defeat Napoleon, he had filled his 
countrymen with the determination not to be beaten. His last 
public speech concluded with the sentence, "England has saved 
herself by her exertions, and the rest of Europe will be saved by 
her example." 

Pitt's place was taken by a coalition ministry, under Lord 

Grenville and Fox, in which an attempt was made 

The ministry ' /.n • -t n ,. 

of "All the to unite the ablest men of all parties, and for this 
Talents." j-eason it was called the ministry of "All the Talents." 



1807.] Pitt — Grenville. 393 

Its leaders hoped to make a satisfactory peace with Napoleon, 
and to carry on the progressive measures which had been checked 
by the French Revolution. In the first of these hopes they were 
disappointed. Fox, who when in opposition had always thrown the 
blame of the war on the English government, now found too late 
that Napoleon was the real offender; with the best intentions he 
opened negotiations with the emperor, but found him th f f 
quite impracticable, and he had hardly been convinced 
of his mistake, when he followed his great rival, Pitt, to the grave, 
in 1806. At home, however, government was more 
successful, and before he died. Fox had the satis- condemning- 
faction of helping to pass a resolution condemning tiie slave 
the slave trade, on which an act, passed in 1807, for 
its abolition was founded. Hitherto the efforts of Wilberforce and 
his friends, though they had the good will of Pitt, had been foiled by 
the House of Lords. 

Abroad, the great event of the year 1806 was the battle of Jena, 
in which the Prussians, who had selfishly refused to help Austria 
and Russia in 1805, and so had been mainly respon- Battle of 
sible for their ruin, were completely crushed, and for Jena. 

some years the Prussian monarchy could hardly be said to be 
independent. After Jena, Napoleon issued his famous Napoleon's 
Berlin Decrees, by which he forbade France and all ^®^i™ decrees, 
her allies to trade with England, and declared all English ports to 
be in a state of blockade. By this means he hoped, though he had 
no navy, to strike a heavy blow at English trade, on which he knew 
that our strength depended. In return England issued The Orders 
the Orders in Council, by which she forbade any trade ^'^ council, 
to be carried on with French ports, or with ports occupied by French 
troops. The Berlin Decrees did not do England much harm, as 
Napoleon had no means of enforcing them ; but the English, having 
the command of the sea, were able to effectively blockade the 
Mediterranean, the Baltic, and the French ports, and practically to 
sweep from the sea the commerce of France and her allies. Un- 
fortunately, the enforcement of the Orders made us the enemies of 
neutral states, such as Sweden, Denmark, and the United States, 
who wished to trade with France, and led to quarrels which soon 
involved us in war with the United States. 



394 George HI. riso?- 

In 1807, besides abolishing the slave trade, the ministers brought 
forward a measure for allowing Roman Catholics to hold the higher 
commissions in the army, as they already might the lower ; but this 
revived all the old hostility of the king, and they were obliged to 

The Duke withdraw it. As they refused to bind themselves 

of Portland not to bring forward the subject again, they were 
Prime dismissed. Their place was taken by the Duke of 
mister. Portland, w^ho as a young man had been premier of 
the coalition formed by Fox and North, and in 1794, frightened 
by the French Revolution, had led a great secession of moderate 
Whigs into Pitt's camp. Portland was now both a Tory and also 
an opponent of the claims of the Catholics, and his administration 
was formed on these principles. The chief members were Perceval, 
Chancellor of the Exchequer; Canning, Foreign Secretary; Lord 
Castlereagh, War and Colonial Secretary ; Huskisson, Secretary to 
the Treasury. As it was thought that new ministers must have 
given a definite promise to the king not to revive the claims of 
the Catholics, a motion was introduced " that ministers ought not 
to bind themselves by any pledge as to what advice they shall give 
the king ; " but it was lost. Soon afterwards Parliament was dis- 
solved, and the electors showed their sympathy with what George 
had done by returning a large anti-Catholic majority. 

Since the failure of Fox's negotiations the war had been going on 
as before ; but the EngHsh had not been engaged in any operations 

Continuation of great magnitude. In 1806 General Stuart, who 

of the war. ^j-jj ^ small English force was defending Sicily 

against the French, landed in Calabria, and defeated the French 

general, Regnier, in the battle of Maida. In 1807 it was learnt that 

the French had again formed the design of seizing the Danish fleet, 

Naval so an expedition was sent against Copenhagen, which 

operations, bombarded the city, captured the fleet, and also took 

the island of Heligoland, which forms a convenient station for a 

fleet, watching the mouth of the Elbe. In pursuance of our usual 

colonial policy, we again seized the Cape of Good Hope in 1806, and in 

1807 expeditions were sent against the Spanish colonies of Buenos- 
Ayres and Monte Video. These expeditions were failures. Monte 

Video was captured; but General Whitelocke, who commanded at 
Buenos-Ayres, managed to entangle his troops in the streets, and 



1808.] 



Portland. 395 



finally was farced to surrender and to give up Monte Video, as 
the price of freedom. Three years later, in 1810, we took from the 
French the island of Mauritius, which we still hold. 

Meanwhile Napoleon, though he had been nearly defeated by the 
Kussians at the battle of Eylau, had routed them at the battle of 
Friedland. This victory led to the treaty of Tilsit, Napoleon's 
by which Eussia joined France against England. By ^c^onquest^ 
this time Napoleon had extended his system of ex- of Portugal, 
eluding English goods to every important European country except 
Portugal, and his next step was, in alliance with Spain, to form a 
plan for conquering that country, which he hated as England's firm 
ally, and partitioning it. Accordingly, a French army under Junot 
invaded Portugal, and forced the royal family to take refuge in their 
colony of Brazil. Napoleon's plan, however, now began to unfold 
itself; for, under pretence of supporting Junot, he Designs 
managed to place French troops in command of all °^ ^va.va.. 
the important military posts in the north of Spain. Unfortunately, 
the King of Spain and his eldest son were at variance. Napoleon 
contrived to induce each of them to give up his claim, and he then 
forced the Spanish grandees, whom he summoned to Bayonne, to 
choose his elder brother, Joseph Buonaparte, whom Napoleon had 
already made King of Naples, to be their sovereign. French troops 
then escorted Joseph to Madrid, and took possession of the Spanish 
towns ; but before long a rebelhon broke out, in which the Spanish 
army took part. A French army was forced to surrender at Baylen ; 
and in 1808 Joseph abandoned Madrid, and all Spain, except that 
part which lay close to the Pyrenees, was evacuated. 

This successful insurrection, which had gained the first great 
success which had been won over the French on land since the 
bednninff of the war, and which had been gained, not Expedition 

, -, . .7,1 • !.• c under Sir 

by kings and their armies, but by an insurrection ot Artiiur 
the people, roused the enthusiasm of Europe; and Weiiesiey. 
Canning immediately despatched an expedition under Sir Arthur 
Wellesley, the victor of Assaye, to attack Junot, who was now com- 
pletely cut off from France, and force him to surrender. Wellesley 
landed at Mondego Bay, north of Lisbon, and marched down the 
coast, defeating on his road a small force of French at Roriga. 
While encamped on the sea coast at Vimeira, Junot marched out 



1808.] Portland, 597 

from Lisbon to attack him ; Welleslej^, however, defeated him in 
such a way that at the end of the action the Enghsh were in a 
position to cut off Junot's retreat. Unfortunately, during the 
battle two other generals arrived, both of whom were senior to 
Wellesley, and therefore had a right to take the command ; they 
agreed to march on Lisbon, but wished to wait for reinforcements, 
and while they were hesitating, Junot asked for an armistice. The 
Convention of Cintra was then arranged, by which 

a ' -^ The 

the French agreed to completely evacuate Portugal, convention- 
on condition that their troops were transported to ° ^^ ^^' 
France. As these terms gave the English the great advantage of 
securing Portugal and all its fortresses without further fighting, they 
were agreed upon. Strangely enough, these very solid gains were 
not appreciated in England, where the French troops were expected 
to arrive as prisoners of war, and the ministry was obliged to satisfy 
pubHc opinion by holding a court-martial on the generals. They were 
acquitted, but Sir Arthur Wellesley alone was employed again. 

The French troops had now been expelled from the whole of the 
peninsula, except the district that lay round St. Sebastian, where 
the road from France enters Spain. But in December sir Joim 
Napoleon himself took the command, and in three ''^tiie French*^ 
weeks defeated the Spanish troops, captured Madrid, «■* corumia. 
and dispersed the Spaniards in every direction. Upon this Sir John 
Moore, who had taken command of the English troops, advanced 
from Salamanca towards Burgos, and by striking at the French line 
of communications forced Napoleon to concentrate for its defence, 
and gained time for the Spaniards to recover. When this had been 
effected, Moore, whose army was far too small to encounter 
Napoleon's whole force, retreated to Corunna.; and Napoleon, having 
entrusted the pursuit to Soult and Ney, returned to France, taking 
some of his best troops with him. When Moore reached Corunna 
he found that the fleet, which had been ordered to come round from 
Lisbon, had not arrived ; and he therefore had to prepare for battle, 
for the French were close behind him. In the fight Battle of 
Moore himself was killed, but the English won, and corunna. 
succeeded in effecting their embarkation without molestation. 
Although during the war the English had fought no battles with the 
French comparable to Napoleon's great victories, still Alexandria, 



398 George III. [isos- 

Maida, Vimeira, and Corunna showed tliat the English had lost 
none of the qualities "which had won Agincourt and Blenheim, and 
encouraged the ministry to enter upon the war on a larger scale. 

Accordingly, Sir Arthur Wellesley was soon despatched to 

resume the command in Portugal, w^hich the French generals were 

sirArtiiur ^°^ threatening. When he arrived, Soult was at 

•WeUesiey Oporto, at the mouth of the Doaro ; and Victor and 

the command Joseph were in the valley of the Tagus, confronted by 

m Portugal. 1^^ Spanish army. Wellesley began the campaign 

by attacking Oporto in such a way that he threatened to hem Soult 

up in the angle which the Douro makes with the sea ; but Soult 

abandoned his baggage and guns, passed by forced marches round 

the right wing of the English, and made his way to Salamanca, 

where he reorganized his army. Then, trusting to promises of 

Spanish support, Wellesley advanced into the valley of the Tagus, 

and joined the Spaniards. The allied armies were attacked by the 

Battle of French at Talavera. In this battle the allies were 

Taiavera. victorious ; but Soult, who had reorganized his army 

with wonderful rapidity, made his way from Salamanca into the 

valley of the Tagus, and appeared in Wellesley's rear. In this 

. ^ predicament Wellesley was obliged to cross the Tagus 

Spaniards ^ jo o 

defeated and escape to Portugal by forced marches ; while the 
Spaniards, who shortly afterwards were foolish enough 
to encounter the French by themselves, were utterly routed at 
Medellin. For the victory of Talavera Wellesley was made Vis- 
count Wellington. 

The year of Talavera was also remarkable for witnessing the 

largest and most unsuccessful English expedition that had been 

Disastrous made since Bannockburn. To help the Austrians, 

^^^^ainst^ whose territory Napoleon had again invaded, an expe- 

Antwerp. dition was planned against Antwerp. No less than 

forty thousand soldiers were employed, but the arrangements were 

as bad as bad could be. The command was given to a holiday 

general. Lord Chatham, the elder brother of Pitt; no proper means 

were taken to ascertain the state of Antwerp, or the nature of the 

country in which the army was to operate. Consequently the 

soldiers were landed on the fever-stricken island of Walcheren, at 

the mouth of the Scheldt. They took Flushing, but instead of 



1808.] Portland — Perceval. 399 

pushing forward at once to get into a more healthy cHmate, they 
delayed so long, that while the French were able to complete the 
defences of Antwerp, the English were utterly prostrated by disease, 
to withstand which, though almost within sight of England, they 
had hardly the most simple medical appliances. The result, of 
course, was a complete failure, and the army was withdrawn after 
effecting absolutely nothing. 

Naturally none of the ministers were willing to take responsi- 
bihty for so gross a blunder, and Canning, the Foreign Quarrel 
Secretary, demanded that Castlereagh, the Secretary c^mi^gTnd 
for War, should be removed from that post. Their castiereagh. 
mutual recriminations led to their resignation and ultimately brought 
about a duel. The Duke of Portland, who had long been failing, was 
quite unequal to cope with such a difficulty, and resigned, and his 
place was taken by Mr. Perceval, who made Lord Perceval's 
Liverpool War and Colonial Secretary, and the Mar- ministry. 
quess of Wellesley, formerly Lord Mornington, Foreign Secretary. 
Both Lord Palmerston and Robert Peel, afterwards Prime Ministers, 
had places in the government. A year later Ceorge III., The king 
whose malady had returned, became permanently perma^ntiy 
insane, and accordingly a Regency Bill, modelled on insane, 
that proposed in 1788, was passed, and the Prmce of Wales 
became regent. 

Napoleon, having closed the campaign of 1809 by the great victory 
of Wagram, by which he forced the Emperor of Austria to make 
peace, and to give him in marriage his daughter, Napoleon 
the Archduchess Marie Louise, the niece of Marie attention^ 
Antoinette, was now able to give his full attention to Spain, 
to Spain. Accordingly, he sent one of his best generals, Massena, 
with a large force to invade Portugal. Wellington had anticipated 
the danger, and had constructed across the peninsula formed by 
the meeting of the Tagus and the Atlantic, the celebrated lines of 
Torres Vedras, behind which he proposed to withdraw with the 
English and Portuguese troops, while he hoped to starve the French 
into retreat by destroying all the provisions on which they could 
subsist. This plan was completely successful. When Massena 
invaded Portugal, Wellington slowly retreated before him, carrying 
off or destroying the crops as he retired. Only once at Busaco he 



400 George III. tisii- 

fought the French, and gained a victory which encouraged the 
Portuguese without leading him to abandon his plan. It was not 
till he was within a few days' march of the lines that Massena 
heard of their existence ; but when he saw them he recognized 
that they were impregnable, and as soon as his provisions were 
exhausted withdrew into winter quarters. 

At the beginning of 1811, the first English success was a victory 

won by Sir Thomas Graham, who came out of Cadiz to attack 

Wenington ^^ French, who were besieging that town. Graham 

in Portugal, ■^on the battle of Barrosa, but then, owing to the 

concentration of the French, was obliged to retire. Wellington 

was soon able to follow up his success, and in May, 1811, had cleared 

Portugal of the French except the garrison of Almeida, which 

guards the northern road on the Portuguese side, and corresponds 

to Ciudad Eodrigo on the Spanish. He also formed the siege of 

Badajoz, which on the southern road corresponds to Ciudad Eodrigo 

on the northern ; Elvas, which corresponds to Almeida, being already 

Battles of in his hands. The sieges of Almeida and Badajoz 

Fuentes ]^ ^^ ^^ battles of Fuentes d'Onoro and Albuera. 

dOnoroand. 

AiiDuera. In the first Wellington commanded in person, and 
foiled the French attempt to relieve Almeida, which was evacuated 
during the battle. In the second Beresford, who was a very 
brave man, but a general of httle skill, was very nearly defeated, 
and, indeed, was only saved by the bravery of his soldiers from 
a great disaster. The French, however, in spite of their defeat, 
soon appeared in such numbers that the siege of Badajoz had 
to be raised. 

Henry IV., King of France, had long ago said, "In Spain, if you 

make war with a small army, you are beaten ; with a large one, 

■Wellington's you are starved." The great advantage Wellington 

in^Portugai possesscd was that the French, who lived on the 

and Spain, plunder of the country, could never for long keep a 
large army together — after a time they always had to disperse 
it ; while Wellington, whose troops were chiefly provisioned from 
England, was able to keep his army much better in hand, and by 
rapidity of movement make up for his want of men. In this way^ 
at the beginning of 1812, Wellington suddenly stormed Ciudad 
Rodrigo, and a few months later Badajoz, while General Hill seized 



181S.] Lord LiverpooL 401 

the bridge of Alcantara over the Tagus. These successes gave 
him the northern and southern gates of Spain, and enabled him 
to communicate readily between the two banks of the Tagus. His 
next step was to invade Spain along the northern road. This led 
to the battle of Salamanca, in which he defeated Battle of 
Marmont, and even took Madrid. He then attempted Salamanca, 
the siege of Burgos, but, as in the case of Sir John Moore's advance, 
an attack in that quarter led to the concentration of the whole 
French army, and he was forced to retreat again to the frontier, 
and the French retook Madrid. 

Meanwhile important changes had occurred in England. In 1812 
an attempt had been made to induce Lord G-renville, the successor 
of Pitt, and Lord Grey (formerly Mr. Grey), the changes in 
successor of Fox, to join the ministry. The plan the ministry, 
broke down ; but the Marquis Wellesley (formerly Lord Morning- 
ton) who had taken the post of foreign secretary in order to 
support his brother, left the government, and his place was taken 
by Lord Castlereagh. This nobleman was not a man of large 
views, but he was thoroughly in earnest about the war, and to his 
determination its ultimate success was in a large measure due. 
Hardly had this change been made, when Perceval was assassinated 
by a merchant named Bellingham. Negotiations were again opened 
with Wellesley and Canning, and also with Grey and Grenville, 
but they came to nothing, and Lord Liverpool (formerly Lord 
Hawkesbury) became Prime Minister. Castlereagh kept his place 
as foreign secretary, while Sidmouth took charge of home affairs. 

On the whole these changes were favourable to Wellington, in 
whose success the country was at length beginning to beheve, and 
fortunately the same year Napoleon undertook his Napoleon's 
disastrous expedition to Kussia. Following Welling- disastrous 

^ . o t) expedition 

ton s tactics at Torres Vedras, the Russians, instead to Russia. 
of fighting on the frontier, steadily withdrew, drawing Napoleon 
after them ; and though they were beaten at the great Battle of 
battle of Borodino, they did not make peace, but Borodino, 
burnt their old capital, Moscow, to prevent Napoleon from wintering 
there. Under these circumstances Napoleon, like Massena, had no 
course but to retreat, and as winter had now set in, his trained army 
was utterly ruined ; and for the future he had to rely upon raw 

2d 



402 



Geors:e III, nsis- 



ccnscripts or on soldiers drawn from the army of Spain. Naturally- 
all Europe took advantage of his misfortune. Prussia joined Russia, 
and the French were driven back to the line of the Elbe. 

It was under these circumstances that Wellington began the 
campaign of 1813, Sending Sir Thomas Graham forward with the 
The campaign left wing to threaten the French communications with 
of 1813. France, he himself led the centre along the Burgos 
road, while Hill with the right advanced by the valley of the Tagus. 
This plan forced the French to abandon in succession Madrid and 
Burgos, and finally Wellington drew his whole force together at 
Battle of Vittoria, and attacked the French in such a way that 
vittoria. Graham with the left seized the road behind them, 
while he and Hill engaged them in front. The result was the total 
rout of the French, who were forced to hurry across the frontier, 
throwing garrisons into St. Sebastian and Pampeluna, which guarded 
the roads to France, just as Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz had 
guarded those into Spain. These were next attacked, and in spite 
of a great effort of Soult to relieve them, which resulted in the 
battle of the Pyrenees (July), St. Sebastian was 
the Pyrenees, stormed in September, and Pampeluna soon affcer- 
Napoieon wards was starved into submission. The same year, 
^'^ ^^ ' in Germany, Napoleon had been fighting an unequal 
warfare against his numerous foes. At Liitzen and Bautzen in the 
month of May, and at Dresden in August, he was with difficulty 
Battle of victorious ; but when the whole force of Austria was 
Leipzig:. thrown into the scale against him, he was completely 
defeated at the battle of Leipzig (October 16-19), and forced to 
retire across the Rhine. 

Next year France was invaded on all sides. On the north, Russians, 
Prussians, and Austrians poured across the frontier ; while Welling- 
ton, with a force of Enghsh, Spaniards, and Portuguese, 
invaded made his way into the old Enghsh province of Gas- 
on an sides. ^^^^^ rpj^^ ministry also sent a small British force 
to join the Prussians in Holland, but it was unfortunately defeated 
in an attempt to take Bergen-op-Zoom. Meanwhile Napoleon was 
fighting for his throne with all his old genius ; but the odds were too 
much for him, and while he was winning victories at a distance, the 
allies stolidly continued their advance on Paris, which they entered 



1814.] Lord Liver pooL 403 

in March, and forced Napoleon to resign. While the allies were 
thus successful in the north, Wellmgton had been Napoleon 
carrying all before him in the south. He had defeated ^ forced 

to resifiTi 

the French in a series of battles, of which Orthez is Battle of 
the chief, and had completely destroyed Soult's line orthez. 
of defence, finally defeating that general at his last stronghold, 
Toulouse. Unfortunately, this battle was fought after Battle of 
an armistice had been made at Paris ; but the slow Toulouse, 
travelling of news in those days prevented the intelligence from 
being known. 

After the fall of Paris it was arranged that Napoleon should with- 
draw to Elba, and make way for the restoration of the Bourbons. 
As the little dauphin, who after his father's death had 

1 1 1 1 -A T Napoleon 

been styled by the Koyalists Louis XYII., was dead, withdraws 
the new king was Louis XVIII., the brother of 
Louis XVI., who had spent most of his time in England. A treaty 
was made with the new sovereign, called the First First peace 
Peace of Paris. By this treaty France was allowed °^ Paris, 
to keep the boundaries which she had had in 1792, with some 
additions. England kept Malta, Ceylon, the Cape Colony, and 
Mauritius. After this, the allied sovereigns paid a state visit to the 
prince regent in England, while a congress of statesmen was held 
at Vienna to settle again the map of Europe. At Vienna, England 
was represented by Lord Castlereagh, who on the whole worthily 
supported the cause of justice against some of the allied sovereigns. 
However, before their deliberations were ended, news was brought 
that Napoleon had escaped from Elba, that he had landed in France, 
and that Louis XVIIl. had taken refuge in Brussels, while Napoleon 
had again taken the title of Emperor. 

This disastrous intelligence caused the revival of the coalition, 
and arrangements were made for a general invasion of France. 
To anticipate this movement. Napoleon determined Arrangements 
to lose no time in invading Belo:ium, which was fo^ag-enerai 

° ° ' invasion 

defended by Wellington with a mixed army of Eng- of France, 
lish, Dutch, and Belgians, and by Blucher with an army of Prussians. 
Napoleon hoped to separate these armies, and then to penetrate 
between them to Brussels. The great object of the allies, therefore, 
was to keep close together, so that one might help the other in case 



404 



Georsre III. 



[1815. 



of attack; but they made the mistake of spreading their troops 
too much, so the rapidity of Napoleon's movements at first gave 
him the advantage. He contrived, with two-thirds of his army, 
to beat the Prussians at Ligny, while the English at Quatre Bras 
were just able to hold their own against the other* third, but were 
not strong enough to help the Prussians. Napoleon's right course 




OPERATIONS OF "WATERLOO. 



was either to crush the Prussians, or to fall with his whole army on 
Wellington, but he lost time, and the allies were able to retreat 
almost unmolested. 

The English and Prussians withdrew respectively to Waterloo 

and Wavi-e, while Napoleon despatched one-third of his army, 

Battle of under Grouchy, to hold the Prussians in check, and 

Waterloo. ^^pt two-thirds to attack Wellington. Wellington, 

however, arranged his troops so that his best men held three 

advance posts — the Chateau of Hougomont, and two sets of farm- 



1815.] 



Lord LiverpooL 



405 



buildings on the slope of a slight valley — while his main body was 
arranged behind the brow of the rising ground in the rear. The 
strength of this position enabled him to hold out against all Napoleon's 
attacks till Blucher, who had left a fourth of his force to resist 
Grouchy, brought up the other three divisions to his support, and 
ranged his forces at right angles to Wellington's left flank. Thus 
forced to fight two armies at once, Napoleon made a desperate effort 







WATEKLOO AT KOON. 



to break through the English line, but the steadiness of the English 
guards in the centre foiled him, and at the ver}'' moment when this 
occurred, the Prussians seized his main line of retreat. The con- 
sequence was that his army was completely dispersed, almost all 
his baggage and artillery falling into the hands of the allies. 

Napoleon himself fled first to Paris and then to Eochefort, where 
he surrendered himself to the captain of an English Napoleon's 
man-of-war. By the common consent of Europe he fli&iit. 
was conveyed to the distant island of St. Helena, where he died in 
1821 . After Napoleon's flight, Louis XVIII. was again 
restored, and the second treaty of Paris was made. 
By this the fortresses of the northern frontier of 
France were to be occupied by the allies for five years ; a money 



The second 

treaty of 

Paris. 



4o6 



George IIL 



[1815. 



indemnity was to be paid ; and all the works of art which Napoleon 
had barbarously stolen from their owners were to be restored. 




Prussians 

Fre7ich 



VKAXliJiLOO AT SEVEN P.M. 

While the allies were in Paris, the Emperors of Russia and Austria 
The Holy ^^^ the King of Prussia formed what was called the 
AUiance. Holy Alliance, which was nominally intended to bind 
them to act together according to the principles of Christianity ; in 
reality it was intended as a league to give mutual assistance for the 
repression of democratic doctrines. France and Spain subse- 
quently joined it, but Lord Castlereagh refused England's consent. 

The formation of the Holy Alliance is very important, because it 

shows that these absolute sovereigns knew that, though they had 

crushed Napoleon, they had not put down the prin- 

Importance ^ ' •' ,. , r. -, -, i • i 

of the Holy ciples of liberty and of equality before the law, which 
lance. -j^^^ been the central ideas of the French Revolution 
Besides the spread of those principles to every country in Europe, 



1815.] Lord Liverpool. 407 

there had also arisen through the French wars the idea of nationality. 
Since the fall of feudalism in the fifteenth century, sovereigns had 
dealt with their dominions as if they were estates to be bartered or 
sold at the will of their owners ; but the treaty of Vienna was the 
last which was framed solely upon this principle, and since then the 
notion that people of the same nation ought to be under the same 
political rule has been the guiding influence in European politics — 
a principle of which the union of Germany under the Emperor 
William, and that of Italy under Victor Emmanuel, have been best 
examples. 

During the latter part of the French war England had been 
unhappily engaged in a war with the United States, which had 
arisen out of the irritation caused by the Orders 
in Council. The Orders themselves had actually tiieirnited 
been revoked when the war broke out in 1812, but states, 
the slowness of news in those days made this concession too late to 
prevent war. The fighting was for the most part at sea, and was 
indecisive. On the Canadian Lakes the English suffered a reverse, 
and though one of their expeditions took Washington, another 
against New Orleans was unsuccessful. This most unsatisfac- 
tory war was brought to a close in 1814 by the treaty of Ghent, and 
happily it did not produce any permanent estrange- Treaty of 
ment between England and her former colonists. Ghent. 
After 1815 almost forty years passed before England was engaged in 
a European war, and during that time attention will have to be 
given to domestic affairs. 

It will be well here to take a short survey of the condition of 
the empire. On the accession of George III. England had held in 
Europe, Minorca and Gibraltar ; in America, Canada, condition of 
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and the *^® empire. 
American colonies, with Jamaica, Barbadoes, and a few other 
West Indian islands ; in Africa, St. Helena ; and in Asia, Bombay, 
Madras, and Calcutta. The follies of the American war lost us the 
North American colonies and Minorca. During the French war 
we gained in Europe, Malta and Heligoland ; in Africa, Cape Colony, 
Ascension, and Mauritius ; in the West Indian islands we secured 
Trinidad and Tobago, and on the mainland British Guiana. In 
India, by 1815, we had made ourselves masters of large tracts of 



4o8 George III. tisis. 

territory on the Ganges and Southern India, and the island of 
Ceylon, while we were indirect rulers of all south of the Himalayas 
except Scinde, the Punjab, and Nepaul. On the other hand, by 
peaceful means we had secured a claim to the great islands of 
Australia and New Zealand, and had founded regular colonies in 
New South Wales and Tasmania. Indeed, by this time England 
had almost completed the project of forming a great colonial 
empire, of which the lines had been laid down by the colonizing of 
Virginia, the formation of the East India Company, and the seizure 
of Jamaica by Cromwell. 

The years which passed between the battle of Waterloo and the 

death of George III. were times of great depression in all branches 

Distress whicii ^^ industry. During the war, in spite of the sacri- 

fouowedthe fices which England had made, trade had been 

general peace. i i i n • i • 

Cause of ©n the whole nourismng, though the workpeople 

depression. j^g^(j suffered from the low rate of wages and the 

high price of provisions, and it had been hoped that the restoration 

of peace would bring with it a period of great prosperity. Instead 

of this, no sooner had peace been declared than bad times began. 

The depression of manufacture was in part due to revival of 

continental industry, which deprived England of the practical 

Poreig-n monopoly which she had enjoyed during the war, 

competition, ^^(j gQ diminished the market for our manufactured 

goods. Trade was also affected by the uncertainty which existed 

■Unsteadiness i^i the money market, owing to the large number 

of prices. Qf bank-notes which had been issued by the Bank of 

England since Pitt had allowed it to suspend money payments in 

1797. These notes had become part of the coinage of the country, 

but it had always been understood that money payments were to 

be resumed at the peace, and the uncertainty as to the demand 

for gold prevented prices from becoming steady. Quite independently 

of this, there was much distress in some districts in consequence 

of the rapid substitution of machinery for hand-labour, which, 

Hiots against though it causcd a great demand for new workmen^ 

machinery, threw the oM hands out of work, and resulted in 

riots against machinery, which broke out first in Nottinghamshire 

in 1811. The rioters called themselves Luddites, after a poor 

idiot who had once in a fit of passion broken a stocking frame, 



i8i5.]i Lord Liverpool, 40 ^ 

and the destruction of machinery was for many years very common 
in the manufacturing districts. 

The depression of trade affected in its turn the prosperity of 
agriculture. During the war agriculture had been extremely 
prosperous. The price of corn had been as a rule tProsperity of 
about double what it had been before the war, for ^^duJng^^ 
not only had the population and wealth of the the war. 
manufacturing districts increased, but also no corn had been shipped 
to England from the Continent, so that the British farmers had 
had the whole benefit of the demand. This had resulted in many 
commons being reclaimed, and quantities of waste land being 
brought under cultivation, and the employment, therefore, of a 
very large country population. When peace came, it was feared 
that the introduction of foreign corn would result in a rapid fall 
in its price, and that the change would bring about a terrible 
disaster in the country districts through the failure of farmers and 
the sudden fall in the demand for labour. 

Accordingly, in 1815 a corn law was passed, prohibiting the 
introduction of foreign corn until the price of wheat had risen to 
80s. a quarter. This price stood midway between com law 
the price of wheat before the war and its highest passed, 
price during its continuance. It was thought that for the future 
the price of wheat would not vary much from 8O5. This calculation 
was wi'ong. The high price expected encouraged _, _ . 
the reclamation of land and the improvement of 
agriculture, and the consequence was that the price of wheat first 
rose and then steadily tell. In 1815 the season was good, and the 
average price of wheat was 635. a quarter; in 1817 the season 
was bad, and the average price was 965. a quarter, and would have 
been much more, had it not been for foreign competition, which 
began when the price reached 8O5. The price then steadily fell, 
till in 1822 the average price was only 45s. If the harvest were 
good, farmers had plenty to sell, but the price was i^ good and in 
low in proportion to their rents; if bad, they had t»ad seasons., 
little to sell, and foreign competition prevented them from selling 
that little at a monopoly price ; so that good years and bad were 
alike disastrous to the farming interest — a state of things which 
naturally led to the ruin of numbers of farmers, and to multitudes 



410 George III. [I817- 

of labourers being thrown out of work by the contraction of the 
area of cultivation. 

This widespread distress caused much discontent both in the 
manufacturing and agricultural districts. In those days the poor 

_ ^ had no votes, and therefore could not feel secure that 

Discontent 

in town their interests would be represented in Parliament. 

and country, rpj^gjj. discontent, therefore, smouldered, and in the 

hands of the more violent took the form of disaffection. Terrified 

Fear of ^7 ^^ French Kevolution, the government were 
revolution, exceedingly ready to believe rumours of plots and 
conspiracies, and undoubtedly there was a widespread feehng in 
England that the country was in a very dangerous condition. 

Of this disaffection, the first symptoms were the Spa Fields Kiots, 

in which the mob attempted to plunder the gunsmiths' shops, and 

Outbreaks and the insulting reception which met the prince regent 

tbfdStSsed ^^6^ ^^ opened Parliament in 1817. Alarmed by 

districts. these occurrences. Parliament at once suspended the 
Habeas Corpus Act; and Lord Sidmouth, who was then Home 
Secretaiy, issued a circular to the lords-lieutenant of counties, 
authorizing magistrates to apprehend persons accused of libellous 
publications, by which were meant any writings in which govern- 
ment was attacked. The same year the unemployed workmen of 
Manchester organized a march of some of their number to London, 
to lay their case before the prince regent. These men were pro- 
vided with blankets, in which they intended to sleep, from which the 
movement was called the " march of the Blanketeers." None, how- 
ever, of those who set out got far on the journey. The same summer 
occurred the Derbyshire insurrection, in which some misguided 
men, encouraged, there is no doubt, to some extent by informers in 
the employ of the government, attempted an armed rising, which 
was, of course, quickly suppressed, and the ringleaders were 
executed. Similar troubles occurred both in the manufacturing 
and agricultural districts, and broke out at intervals till the revival 
of trade restored prosperity to the country. 

Among the more sensible members of the working classes discon- 

_ .yg ^^j. tent with the state of the country took the form of 

Parliamentary desire for Parliamentary reform, and the agitation for 

this, which had almost died out during the war, was 



1819. Lord Liverpool, 411 

renewed both in and out of Parliament. In Parliament reform was 
advocated by Sir Francis Burdett, and out of it by William Cobbett, 
one of the most vigorous of all our writers of popular English. In 
the House of Commons several motions on the subject were brought 
forward by Sir Francis Burdett, while in the manufacturing districts 
the inhabitants of large unrepresented towns, such as Birmingham, 
Manchester, and Leeds, were loud in their demand for a share in the 
government of the country, and large meetings of the working class, 
often attended by riots, were held all over the country. 

These meetings alarmed government, and proclamations were 
issued against seditious meetings, which, by stifling legitimate agita- 
tion, only added to the discontent. Just after these ^he st. Peter's 
proclamations a meeting was called in St. Peter's ^ieid meeting. 
Field, Manchester, for the purpose of petitioning for Parliamentary 
reform. The meeting was densely crowded by deputations from 
all the neighbouring districts, who marched in procession with flags 
flying, accompanied by their wives and children. The size and 
enthusiasm of the meeting seem to have quite disconcerted the 
magistrates, who, finding that they could not easily arrest Mr. Hunt, 
the leading orator, actually ordered a body of cavalry and yeomanry 
to charge the unarmed crowd. The result was a scene of frightful 
confusion; men, women, and children were trampled under the 
horses' feet, or cut down by the swords of the soldiers. Several 
persons were killed outright, and numbers were injured. The 
government supported the magistrates in holding that the meeting 
was illegal, and secured the conviction and imprisonment of Mr. 
Hunt and some of the leaders, on a charge of conspiring to alter, 
the law by force and threats. 

Parliament, in its turn, supported the ministers, and passed the 
celebrated Six Acts, by which the use of arms, training in mihtary 
exercises, and the holding of unauthorized meetings 
and assemblies were forbidden, and at the same 
time regulations were made by which newspapers were controlled, 
and the publication of blasphemous and seditious libels was made 
more difficult. These Acts were quite in accord with the fears of 
the upper classes, but there was never any real danger of revolution. 
The Acts, however, were strongly condemned by the Whigs, and 
Lord John Russell, who was then coming forward as their leader, 



41^ 



Geors:e III. 



L1820. 



tried to call attention to what lie considered the true course, by- 
proposing resolutions in favour of Parliamentary reform, which, 
however, were not carried. 

It was in the midst of these difficulties that George III., who had 
Death of lo^^g ^^^cn quite incapable of even understanding what 

George III. ^g^g going On around him, passed away in January, 
1820, at the great age of eighty-one. He was succeeded by the 
regent, under the title of George IV. 



CHIEF GENERAL EVENTS BETWEEN 1789 and 1820. 

Outbreak of the French Revolution 1789 

Habeas Corpus Act suspended 

Mutinies at Spithead and the Nore 
Union of Great Britain and Ireland ... 

Orders in Council issued 

Slave-trade abolished 

New Corn Law 

Six Acts passed 



1794-1802 
... 1797 
... 1800 
... 1807 

... 1815 
... 1819 



CHIEF BATTLES, SIEGES, AND TREATIES (i 789-1820) 



Lord Howe's victory of June 1 
Battle of Cape St. Vincent 

„ Camperdown ... 

„ the Nile 

Siege of Acre 

Battle of Copenhagen 
Treaty of Amiens 
Battles of Assaye and Laswaree 
Battle of Trafalgar 
Peninsular War begins ... 
Battles of Eoriya and Vimeira 

,, Oporto and Talavera 

Lines of Torres Vedras 

Battles of Fuentes d'Onoro and Albuera 
Storming of Badajoz and Ciudad Rodrigo 
Battle of Salamanca 

,, Vittoria 

„ Orthez and Toulouse 

„ Waterloo 



1794 

1797 

1798 
1799 
1801 
1802 
1803 
1805 
1808 

1809 
1810 
1811 
1812 
1812 
1813 
1814 
1815 



CHAPTER V. 

Geoege IV., 1820-1830 (10 years). 
Born 1762 ; married, 1795, Caroline of Brunswick. 

Chief Characters of the Reign. — Lord Liverpool ; the Duke of Wellington ; 
Lord Castlereagli ; Peel ; Canning ; Huskisson ; Lord Goderich ; 
O'Connell. 

f^hief Contemporary Sovereigns. 

France. 
Louis XYIIL, d. 1824. 
Charles X., expelled 1830. 

IIaedly had the new king ascended the throne, than the last of 
the conspiracies, which are to be classed with the outbreaks of Spa 
Fields and Derby, was discovered. This was the Cato cato street 
Street Plot, which was arranged by Thistlewood — conspiracy. 
a man who had formerly held a commission in the army, but 
had become filled with the sentiments of French republicanism. 
His associates were butchers and draymen. The notion of these 
deluded men was to murder all the ministers while they were 
dining at Lord Harrowby's house, and then set up a provisional 
government. The scheme of the plot was as cruel as it was absurd. 
The plan was made known to the government, and the conspirators 
having been arrested at the last moment, Thistlewood and four 
others were executed, and the rest transported. The Cato Street 
Conspiracy was the last flicker of disaffection. Changes in the 
ministry brought about hopes of reform. The Hopes of 
resumption of cash payments for bank-notes on de- better days, 
mand, which had been arranged for by Peel's Act of 1819, came into 
operation soon afterwards. Trade was thus placed on a healthier 
basis, and in a short time the country was again prosperous. 

The accession of George IV. brought about a difficulty in regard 
to the queen. When quite a young man, George had married Mrs. 
Fitzherbert, a Roman Catholic lady, a legal marriage with 



414 George IV, 1820- 

whom would "by the Bill of Eights have forfeited the crown. 

Marriage -^^ i* "^^^5 ^J ^^® Royal Marriage Act (see p. 373), 

with Mrs. Mtz- ^j^^g marriage was illegal. Presently the king wished 

Herbert. ^ ^ / "^ 

the prince to make a legal marriage, and arranged 
^c^roifneTf* for him an alliance with Caroline of Brunswick, whom 

Brunswick, j^g married in 1795. This marriage naturally turned 
out unhappily, and after the birth of the Princess Charlotte the 
pair separated, and the princess lived away from the court, and in 
1814 went to the Continent. 

Meanwhile the Princess Charlotte was growing up, and was 
Marriage and married to Prince Leopold of Saxe Cobm'g; but a 
pSfce^s°ciJlr- y®^^ afterwards, in 1817, she died, after giving birth 
lotte. to a dead child. The whole country was thrown into 

consternation, for neither the prince regent nor his three brothers, 
the Dukes of York, Clarence, or Kent, had any legitimate children. 
The Duke of York was already married, but had no family; so now 
the Dukes of Clarence and Kent also married, and the daughter of 
the Duke of Kent, Princess Victoria, born in 1819, became, after 
her uncles and father, heir to the throne. 

While the Princess of Wales had been abroad, stories had reached 
England of improprieties in her conduct, and many thought she 
was unfit to be recognized as Queen of England, 
omitted from Accordingly, when her husband became king, her 
e 1 \irey. YiS^vn^ was omittsd from the Liturgy, and an attempt 
was made to prevent her from leaving the Continent. With great 
courage, however, she insisted on coming to England ; and the 

Bin of Pains ministers upon that, by the king's wish, brought in a 
and Penalties, gjn q{ Pains and Penalties, to divorce her from her 
husband and deprive her of the title of queen. The introduction of 
this bill was most unpopular ; for the great mass of the people looked 
upon her as an injured woman. The bill, however, never got further 
than the House of Lords, which it passed by a small majority ; it 
was not brought into the Commons, where the queen's friends were 
the strongest. The evidence, however, which was brought forward 

Death of the m support of the bill was so strong, that the queen's 
QLueen. popularity sank, and shortly afterwards, broken-hearted 
at being refused admission to Westminster Abbey on the occasion of 
the king's coronation, she died. 



1822.] Lord Liverpool. 41 1 

Soon after the death of George III. it became clear that the panic 
caused by the French Eevolution was beginning to pass away, and 
that the country wished again to enter upon the s3miptoms of 
path of progress, from which Pitt had been diverted new progress, 
by the outbreak of the war. Various signs showed this. In 1821 
a bill for the relief of the Catholics was passed by the Commons, 
but thrown out by the Lords. Grampound, a corrupt borough, 
was disfranchised, and its two seats were given to the county of 
York. In the ministry itself changes were made ; several members 
of the Grenville party were admitted, and Peel, the son of a cotton- 
spinner, whose sympathies were with the middle classes rather than 
with the aristocracy, succeeded Lord Sidmouth as Home Secre- 
tary; but the greatest change that was made in the Cabinet was 
caused by the suicide of Lord Londonderry, formerly Castlereagh 
in 1822. 

Castlereagh, who was a man of the most amiable character in 
private life, had little sympathy with public opinion or with pro- 
gress. He had passed most of his life in fighting the castiereagn-s 
cause of the minority against the majority, and his character, 
iron will had been the most powerful instrument in bringing to 
a successful conclusion the coalition against Napoleon. In England 
he was a strong upholder of repression, and abroad, though he 
refused to entangle England in the policy of the Holy Alliance, 
his sympathies were against any extension of the principles of 
liberty and equality. Though an excellent man for the work he 
had done, he was probably a bar to the coming in of a new era, 
and the joy which hailed his death, though it was bitterly cruel 
to the memory of a kindly and well-meaning man, expressed clearly 
the feeling of the public on the matter. 

His successor at the Foreign Office was a very different man. 
George Canning was full of generous sentiments, and though he 
never for a moment lost sight of English interests, it canning's 
was understood that his sympathies were v/ith the policy, 
people, and that where possible he would give them a helping hand. 
He soon showed that this was the case. During the war with 
France, the Spanish colonies of South America had thrown off 
their dependence on the mother country. This was a great ad- 
vantage to England, as it opened the trade with them, and 



41 6 George IV, [i82a- 

Canning declared that no European power should help Spain to 
reconquer them, and fully recognized their independence. In 1826, 
when Spanish and French troops proposed to enter Portugal in 
order to overthrow the constitution which the Portuguese had set 
up, Canning forbade the step, and despatched English troops to 
the Tagus with such promptitude that the threat was withdrawn. 
When the Greeks broke out into revolt against Turkey, Canning's 
skill prevented Eussia from taking the opportunity to seize Con- 
stantinople, and on the other hand secured the Greeks fair play in 
their struggle with their oppressors. 

While Canning was thus introducing new methods into English 
foreign pohcy, progress was being made at home. We saw that in 

Progress at ^^® early part of Pitt's administration four ques- 
home, tions had been to the front — Parliamentary reform, 

the rearrangement of the customs duties, the repeal of the Test 
and Corporation Acts, and the removal of the disabilities of the 
Eoman Catholics. Each of these questions had become more 
complicated during the years which had since passed. 

In the days of Pitt the central idea of ParHamentary reform had 
been to give the seats of the rotten boroughs to the counties, but 

The reform within the last forty years the whole problem had 

question. changed by the rise of the great manufacturing towns. 
The introduction of spinning and weaving by machinery, and the 
use of steam as a new motive power, had altered the character of 
the country. Up to 1790, England, we may say roughly, had been 
an agricultural country; it had since been rapidly changing into 
a manufacturing one. This was a great revolution, and the massing 
together of great bodies of operatives and manufacturers in such 
places as Birmingham, Manchester, and Leeds, brought into being 
a new and powerful public opinion which was as yet wholly un- 
represented in Parliament. It was becoming plain that the old 
system of representation, which gave all the power to the counties 
and ancient boroughs, was out of date, and would have to be 
modified in some way. 

The next question, that of the rearrangement of the customs and 
of the laws regulating industry, had also been complicated by the 
The free trade introduction of the coni laws, which had made 

auestion. agriculture by far the most powerful of the protected 



1823.J Liverpool. 417 

industries, dnd also by the rapid change in the industries of the 
country which followed the introduction of machinery and steam. 

This question of duties was the first to be dealt with. Huskisson, 
who became President of the Board of Trade in 1823, was an 
enhghtened follower of the commercial policy of Huskisson's 
Pitt, and he at once set to work to help manufactures policy, 
by reducing the taxes which were levied on the introduction of 
raw materials, such as silk and wool ; at the same time he largely 
modified the Navigation Acts by which goods were forbidden to be 
brought to England in any but English ships, or, in the case of 
European countries, in vessels belonging to the countries from which 
the goods came. Now that we wanted to do a large trade with 
North and South America, these restrictions had become insufferable. 
He also repealed the Act by which the wages of the Spitalfields 
weavers were fixed by the magistrates, abolished the restrictions 
on workmen travelling from one part of the country to another in 
search of work, and all laws directly controlling the combinations 
of either masters or workmen. 

These measures gave a great impetus to trade, and unfortunately 
the sudden burst of prosperity led to much overtrading, and to the 
formation of bubble companies such as those of Revival of 
1720. The natural result was a terrible panic in 1825, trade, 

when many of these companies failed, and numbers of banks were 
ruined. A period of bad trade followed, during which riots occurred 
in the manufacturing districts, and much machinery, which was still 
thought by the workmen to be at the bottom of any misfortune 
was destroyed. 

The question of Catholic Emancipation had long been of first-rate 
importance. It had overthrown Pitt's first administration and also 
that of Grenville, and under Lord Liverpool it had catiioiic 
been made an open question, i.e. one on which ministers question, 
might differ in opinion. Accordingly, Canning and Castlereagh, 
as followers of Pitt, had always favoured the Catholics, while 
Liverpool, Sidmouth, and Eldon had been against them. The 
question had, however, assumed a more serious shape since it 
had been taken up by the popular Irishman, Daniel 
O'Connell, who had in 1823 formed the Catholic °'^°^^^"- 
Association to advocate the CathoHc claims. This association 

2e 



41 8 George IV. [I825- 

assumed vast proportions— levied a subscription from all Catholics, 
which was known as the " Catholic rent," and almost superseded 
the government of the country. 

Accordingly, in 1825, the Association was suppressed for three 
years, but a rehef bill was immediately introduced by Sir Francis 
Attempts at its Burdett, which passed the Commons by a large 
settlement, majority. In the Lords, however, it was met by a 
violent opposition, headed by the Duke of York, who spoke against 
it most strongly, and it was accordingly rejected — an act which was 
probably in accord with the wishes of the great mass of the country, 
who were in this respect more narrow-minded than the unreformed 
House of Commons. Undeterred by this failure, the Cathohc 
Association was again started in an altered form, and the agitation 
was continued in Ireland as vigorously as ever. 

Meanwhile the ministry was becoming more and more disunited. 
Except in opposition to reform of Parliament, there was hardly any 
subject on which they agreed, and when Lord Liver- 
Lordxiiver ° pool fell ill, and resigned in 1827, the inevitable break- 
^°°^' up took place. Canning became Prime Minister, and 

was supported by some of the Whigs, especially by Brougham. On 
Canning's ^^ ^ther hand, the Duke of Welhngton, Lord Eldon, 
ministry. r^^A Peel resigned their posts. Huskisson continued 
at the Board of Trade, Lord Palmerston continued Secretary at War, 
and Lord Goderich became War and Colonial Secretary. This 
ministry promised further progress, and it was thought certain that 
Death of i* would in a short time be joined by the leading Whigs, 
Canning'. f-Qj. -^hom, In fact, places had been kept, but unhappily 
it was completely ruined by the death of Canning, which happened 
within four months of his becoming premier. Abroad, Canning's 
chief attention was given to Greece. With great skill he arranged 
Battle of joint action between England, France, and Russia 
Navarino. for the pacification of that country. This arrange- 
ment led to an attempt to prevent the Turkish fleet from coming 
out of the harbour of Navarino in order to unite with an 
Egj^ptian contingent in an attack upon the Ionian Islands. This 
led to a battle, in which the Turks were completely defeated ; but 
the incompetence of the new ministers was unable to follow out 
Canning's other object of holding Russia in check, and in con- 



1829.] Canning — Goderich — Wellington. 419 

sequence the czar's troops advanced into Turkey and were very 
near taking Constantinople, and in 1829 only the interference of 
England and France succeeded in securing Turkey the humiliating 
treaty of Adrianople. 

After Canning's death, Lord Goderich was for a few months 
prime minister ; but he was quite unfitted for the post. The mem- 
bers of his ministry quarrelled among themselves, and in January, 
1828, he resigned his post, so the plan of a progressive Torj"- 
Whig ministry failed. The king then asked the Duke of Wel- 
lington to become Prime Minister, who formed an administration 
of Canningites and Tories, of which Peel was Home Secretary 
and Leader of the House of Commons, Huskisson Duke of 
Colonial and War Secretary, and Palmerston Secretary ^^pii^°^: 
at War. The first event under the new administra- Minister, 
tion was the passing, without much opposition, of a motion of 
Lord John Russell's for the repeal of the Test and Corporation 
Acts, by which Nonconformists were admitted to full political 
rights. The same year an unsuccessful attempt was made to 
transfer the members for Penryn and East Retford to Manchester 
and Birmingham. The case of East Retford brought on a quarrel 
in the government; for Huskisson, who had voted in favour of 
the transfer, resigned, and was followed by Lords Palmerston and 
Dudley, Lamb (afterwards Lord Melbourne), and other Canningites, 
whose places were filled by Tories. 

Hardly had this been done, When the Catholic question assumed a 
most alarming aspect. O'Connell himself was put up to contest the 
county of Clare against Vesey Fitzgerald, the new „, 

•^ ° J o J Election of 

President of the Board of Trade. He was elected by o'Conneii for 
an enormous majority, and nothing prevented him 
from taking his seat except his inability to take the necessary oaths, 
which as a Roman Catholic he could not do. The three years 
having now expired, the Catholic Association was revived, and the 
aspect of Ireland became so threatening, that Wellington was 
convinced that nothing but civil war could preserve the disabilities. 
This calamity he was not prepared to face, and accordingly he and 
Peel made up their mind that the disabilities must be repealed. 

When Parliament met in 1829, the king's speech recommended 
it to consider the removal of Catholic disabilities, and, as a preli- 



420 



George IV. 



[1830. 



minary measure, an act was passed suppressing the Catholic Asso- 
ciation. The kinar, however, now declared that, like 

Repeal of the , . „ , , , n . ,. , , . . 

Catholic dis- his father, he had conscientious scruples to giving 
abilities. j^-g (3Qj^gg^^ ^q ^j^q \y^\ but, upon Wellington and 

Peel threatening to resign, he agreed to give way, and the bill 
was then passed, by which the Roman Catholics were allowed, 
instead of taking the customary oaths, to make a declaration that 
they would do nothing to injure Church or State. They were 
only excluded from the offices of Regent, Lord Chancellor, and 
Viceroy of Ireland, and from the exercise of Church patronage. 
At the same time that this bill passed, the Irish 

Cliange . . ... 

in tiie Irish franchise in counties was raised from forty shillings 
anc se. ^^ ^^^ pounds, as it was thought that, now that 
Roman Catholics could be elected, the lower franchise would result 
in a complete exclusion of Protestants. 

Unfortunately, the repeal was deprived of much of its grace by 

not including a special clause allowing O'Connell to take his seat 

without re-election. The ungraciousness of this, coupled with the 

raising of the franchise, robbed the act of its conciliatory character. 

« .* *• * O'Connell was, of course, re-elected, and soon began a 

Agitation for ' ' ' o 

repeal of the new agitation for the repeal of the Union, which went 
* ' on for many years. In June, 1830, George IV. died, 

and as the Duke of York had died in 1827, he was succeeded by 
the Duke of Clarence, with the title of William IV. 

It has been said of George IV. that " he was a bad son, a bad 
husband, a bad father, a bad subject, a bad monarch, and a bad 
friend." With excellent abilities, he employed his talents solely for 
his own gratification, and when he died was the subject of almost 
universal contempt. 



CHIEF EVENTS UNDER GEORGE IV. AND 
WILLIAM IV. 



Test and Corporation Acts repealed 


1828 


Catholic Disabilities repealed 


182? 


Reform Bill passed 


1832 


Slavery abolished 


1833 


New Poor Law 


1834 


Municipal Reform Act 


1835 



CHAPTEE VI. 

William IV., 1830-1837 (7 years). 
Born 1765; married, 1818, Adelaide of Saxe Meiningen. 

GMef Characters of the Reign.— Esixl Grey; Lord Brougham; Lord 
Althorp; Lord John Eussell ; Wellington; Peel; Stanley, after- 
wards Earl of Derby ; Lord Melbourne ; Lord Palmerston, 

Chief Contem'porary Sovereign. 

France. 

Louis Philippe, 1830-1848. 

The new king was ranch more popular than his brother ; he had 
the manners of a sailor, cared little for state but much for popularity, 
and was believed to be in favour of reform. The new elections were 
favourable to the reformers, and at the same time a great impulse was 
given to popular enthusiasm by a successful revolt of the French 
agamst their despotic king, Charles X., and the establishment of a 
popular government under his cousin, Louis Philippe, Duke of 
Orleans, who took the title of King of the French. This revolution 
reminded men of the English Ke volution of 1688, and was thought 
to augur well for the triumph of the middle classes in this country. 

However, before Parliament met, the beginning of perhaps the 
most striking revolution of the age was made by the opening of 
the Liverpool and Manchester Eailway. This great opening of the 
step, which was due to the application of the steam- ^iverpooi and 

. n -, Manchester ' 

engine to the draggmg of heavy carriages along the Railway, 
tram-lines which had long been in use, was mainly due to the 
mgenuity and determination of George Stephenson, a north-country 
workman, who thereby made himself a name as one of the greatest 
engineers of the age. The importance of the new step was recog- 
nized by a pubhc opening, in which the Duke of Wellington and 
other ministers took part, and unhappily Mr. Huskis- ■Deg.fh. of 
son, who had just been reconciled to the duke, was ECusMsson. 
knocked down by a passing engine, and died of his mjuries. The 



42 2 William IV. tisso- 

application of steam-power to navigation preceded the railway by 
some years, and in 1803 Fulton, an American, successfully con- 
structed a working steam-ship, and in 1838 the Atlantic was crossed 
by steam-power only, for the first time. 

When Parliament met, the Duke of Wellington roused a great 

deal of feeling by declaring that the House of Commons needed no 

Wellington's reform. There were a great many people who agreed 

declaration ^-^-i^ 'Kmi, and many more who thought that a reform 
against reform. ' •> ^ o 

rit ofthe ^hould be Carefully considered, and should preserve 
old system, as much as possible of the good features of the old 
system of representation. The great merits of the old plan 
were that on the whole it had worked well, that, in spite of its 
anomahes, it had very fairly represented the feelings of Englishmen, 
and that it bad produced a body of statesmen who could compare 
in administrative ability, in rectitude and in eloquence, with those of 
any country in the world. Even the rotten boroughs had had their 
advantage in enabling leaders to introduce to political life young 
men of ability, and both the Pitts, Burke, Fox, Canning, Huskisson, 
and many others had gained their first seats in Parliament through 
this channel. Against this, however, it was to be said that many large 
and important towns were wholly unrepresented, that large and 
populous counties had the same number of members 
as small ones, and that the landed interest was over- 
represented, out of all proportion to the manufacturing. 

The great difficulty, however, in the way af moderate reform 
was the fact that reform had been postponed so long. At the close 
Difficulties of ^^ ^^® ^^^^ century the Rockingham Whigs and King's 
reform. friends had defeated Pitt's efforts in this direction; 
Canning had always been opposed to Parliamentary reform ; and 
lately the Lords had defeated Lord John Russell's attempts to 
gradually transfer members from corrupt boroughs to the large 
manufacturing centres. The consequence was that nothing but a 
sweeping measure of reform would satisfy the country, and the 
Duke's ill-considered expression caused a storm of indignation. 
However, before any resolution on the subject was brought in, the 
liord Grey's government were defeated on a motion connected 
ministry. ^\\}a. the Civil List, and the Duke immediately re- 
signed. Upon this, Lord Grey, who had long led the Whigs in the 



1831.] Grey. 423 

House of Lords, was seat for. He formed a ministry out of the old 
Whigs, with some followers of Canning and Grenville. The chief 
members were Brougham, who became Lord Chancellor; Lord 
Althorp, Chancellor of the Exchequer; Lord Melbourne, Home 
Secretary ; Lord Palmerston, Foreign Secretary ; Lord John Russell, 
Paymaster of the Forces; and Mr. Stanley, Colonial Secretary. 
Lord Grey had stipulated that reform should be a Cabinet measure, 
and in March, 1831, the Reform Bill was introduced by Lord John 
Russell, who had long been the champion of reform in the Lower 
House. 

The bill was based upon the new principle of symmetry. It was 
proposed to disfranchise sixty-two boroughs with less than two 
thousand inhabitants, and to take away one member rpiie proposed 
each from forty-seven boroughs of only four thousand i5,eform Biii. 
inhabitants. These members were to be divided among the large 
towns — of which the most important were Manchester, Birmingham, 
Leeds, Wolverhampton, and Sheffield — among the thickly populated 
districts of the metropolis, and among the larger counties. With 
regard to the right of voting, the qualification in towns was for the 
first time to be made uniform, and given to all householders paying 
a yearly rental of ten pounds. In the counties the right was to be 
given (in addition to the old forty-shilling freeholders) to all copy- 
holders to the value of ten pounds a year, and to leaseholders for 
twenty-one years, whose rent was over fifty pounds. 

The Bill passed the second reading by a majority of 302 to 301, 
but when its clauses were being considered in committee of the 
House, an amendment, introduced by General Gas- Bin defeated in 
coyne, that the members for England and Wales committee, 
ought not to be diminished, was carried against the government 
by 8. Ministers, however, felt that the enthusiasm in the country 
was rising, and they therefore persuaded the king to dissolve 
Parliament in person, before the Lords were able to carry an address 
to him against dissolution. 

The result of the election showed that ministers were right. 
" The Bill, the whole Bill, and nothing but the Bill," ^. , ,. 

' ' ° ' Dissolution 

was the cry of the Reformers, and the Tories were and general 

beaten all over the country. The Reform BiU was 

now carried, on its second reading, by no less than 136 votes, and 



424 William IV. [I832- 

after many weeks of discussion in committee, during wMch the 

Second biu ^^^^ ^^ ®^^^ "borough was vigorously contested, the 

carried in the third reading was passed by 345 to 236. However, 

tiirown out by when the Bill reached the Lords, the opposition was 
tbe Xiords. gtrong enough to secure its rejection, and it was thrown 
out by 199 to 158. Its rejection caused the utmost indignation. 
Many of the peers and bishops were insulted by the populace. At 
Birmingham the bells were muffled and tolled ; at Nottingham the 
castle was fired; at Bristol the mob, infuriated by drink, got complete 
possession of the city, released the prisoners, set fire to the Mansion 
House and the Bishop's Palace, and for three days gave themselves 
over to every kind of excess. 

In December, Parliament again met, and the Bill was carried in 

the Commons by a majority of two to one, and was again sent up 

Third bin ^° ^^ Lords. In the Upper House the second 

carried in the reading of the bill was carried by nine votes only, and 

Hostility of the it became clear that the feeling of the House was 

Lords. g^ijj against the measure. Under these circumstances 

the excitement in the country became intense. No less than 150,000 

Agitation in persons met at Birmingham to support the measure. 

the country, j^^ ^g^g seriously proposed that no taxes should be 
paid until the Bill had been passed. Everything presaged the 
coming of a revolution. In spite of this, the lords in committee 
carried by 35 a resolution adverse to the Bill. No course appeared 
open except to attack the House of Lords or to create new peers 
Resignation of in Order to form a Whig majority, as Harley had done 

the ministry, jn 1711. As the king rcfuscd to do this, ministers 
resigned. Upon this the king sent for the Duke of Wellington and 
implored him to help him; but the Duke, though with his usual 
courage he expressed himself willing to make an attempt, found 
that his followers refused to support him. Accordingly Earl Grey 
Passage of the Came back again, and the king consented, if necessary, 
■^^^^- to create new peers. This threat forced the lords 

to withdraw their opposition, and in June, 1832, the Eeform Bill 
passed the Lords by 106 votes to 22. 

The Bill as it stood did not differ very much from that which had 

The Reform been introduced by Lord John RusselJ. One hundred 

Act of 1832. ^j^(j fort^^-three members were taken away from small 



1833.] Grey. 425 

borouglis ; of these, sixty-five were given to the counties, two 
members each to Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, Sheffield, and 
eighteen other large towns, including the metropolitan districts, and 
one member each to twenty-one other towns, all of which had been 
previously unrepresented. The right to vote was as originally pro- 
posed, except that, by the Chandos clause, farmers occupying land 
rented at £50 a year were enfranchised. 

Bills of a similar character were then passed for Scotland and 
Ireland. The number of members for Scotland was increased from 
forty-five to fifty-three, and in Ireland from one Scotland and 
hundred to one hundred and five. In both countries Ireland, 
the franchise in towns was made the same as in England, but in 
Ireland the rights of the forty-shilhng freeholders which had been 
taken away in 1828 were not restored. 

The two great points in the English Eeform Bill were, first, the 
introduction of a uniform franchise, which had never before existed, 
each town having had rules of its own; and secondly, ^^^^^ fe^xyx 
the transference of power from the agricultural to of the 

the manufacturing districts. A line drawn from Hull 
to Bristol will, roughly speaking, divide these districts; and, with 
very few exceptions, all the disfranchised towns lay to the south 
and east of this line, and all the enfranchised to the north and west 
of it. The equalization of the franchise, of course, gave the chief 
power to the most numerous class of voters, that is to the house- 
holders living in houses between ten and twenty pounds. It de- 
stroyed to a great extent the influence of the aristocracy in the 
boroughs, but they still retained theh influence in the counties. 

When the Keformed Parhament met, it was found that the Tories 
had only secured 172 seats, while the Whigs having carried aU before 
them in the new constituencies had 486. A period -^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ 
of great legislative activity followed. In 1833 an act Reformed 

. Parliament. 

was passed for the emancipation of the West Indian 
slaves. The slave trade had been prohibited in 1807, but the sugar 
plantations of the West Indies had continued to be worked by slaves, 
who were a valuable property to their owners. In 1833 an act was 
passed by which slavery was to cease from August, 1834, and 
compensation was given to the slave-owners to the amount of 
£20,000,000. As a step between slavery and absolute freedom, the 



426 William IV, [isss- 

slaves were to work for their masters as apprentices for seven years, 
which were afterwards reduced to four. It was also arranged that 
the duty on sugar grown by free labourers should always be less 
than that on sugar grown by slaves — a bargain which has not been 
carried out. 

At home some important reforms were made. By one Act, 
passed 1833, an annual grant of £20,000 was made in aid of 
elementary education, which had hitherto been en- 
tirely conducted by the Church and other religious 
and philanthropic bodies. By another Act, introduced by Lord 
Ashley (afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury") in 1833, the 

Fa.ctoryA.cts. ^ / ' 

employment of children under nine years of age in 
factories was forbidden. This practice had sprung up since the 
introduction of machinery, to the great injury of the children's 
health and the ruin of their education. The Act has been extended 
from time to time, and in 1847 Fielden's Act limited the work of 
all young persons and women to ten hours a day. In 1834, by the 
Poor Law Amendment Act, the administration of the poor law was 
Poor law reformed, and a stop put to the practice of granting 
amended. systematic outdoor relief in the case of able-bodied 
men, which had had such disastrous effects in the rural districts. 
This change from the old system to the new was, however, the 
cause of great hardship to the poor, who had been trained for 
years to rely on their parish pay to eke out their wages, and 
good as it was for the nation as a whole, it created much discontent 
among the working classes. 

An important Act was passed in 1833 for the reform of the Irish 
Church, by which two archbishoprics and eight bishoprics were 
suppressed, and a commission was appointed to administer superflu- 
ous revenues. At the same time a severe Coercion Act was passed, 
on the ground that in 1832 no less than nine thousand crimes, 
arising out of the disturbed state of the country, had been com- 
mitted. An Act was also passed in 1833 to compensate the Irish 
clergy for the loss of tithe which they had experienced through 
the resistance to its collection. In 1835 the tithes were commuted. 
The Irish Church question led to a difficulty in the ministry. 
Ministerial Mr. Stanley (afterwards Lord Derby), Sir J. Graham, 
changes. ^nd two Others, disagreed with Lord Grey, and left 



1835.] Melbourne — Peel — Melboiwne. 427 

the ministry. Before long they began to act with Sir Robert 
Peel, and took a high place in the Tory party. 

Meanwhile the Conservatives, as the followers of Peel had now 
begun to call themselves, to distinguish them from conservative 
men of the type of Lord Eldon, were gaining ground reaction, 
under the able Parliamentary leadership of Peel, and the tide of 
enthusiasm which had carried along the reform ministry beginning 
to abate, a reaction was setting in. This soon showed Disunion in the 
itself in the form of disunion in the ministry. Grey ^J^aSorof 
differed with Althorp, the leader of the House of Lord Grey. 
Commons, about renewing the Irish Coercion Act. Althorp sent in 
his resignation, and G-rey, who was now an old man, retired His 
place was taken by Lord Melbourne, an able but eccentric man, 
who had no enthusiasm for energetic reforms. This state of things 
encouraged the king to believe that there was a LordMei- 
Conservative reaction, and as he had for a long ^'^f^t-f^]^^^ 
time gi'own heartily tired of his ministers, he took ^ing dismisses 
the opportunity of Lord Althorp's going to the tiieWhigs. 
House of Lords on his father's death, to dismiss them and call the 
Duke of WeUington to take office. The Duke advised that Peel 
should be Premier. 

This Peel accepted. The Duke of Wellington became Foreign 
Secretary; Lord Lyndhurst, Lord Chancellor; Lord Aberdeen, 
War and Colonial Secretary; and dissolved Parlia- sir Robert 
ment. In the electian the Conservatives gained i*eei's ministry, 
nearly one hundred seats, but the Whigs were still in a majority 
of 107. Sir Robert Peel had announced himself in favour of 
steady progress, but he was continually defeated by the Liberals ; 
and when Lord John Russell carried a resolution for applying the 
surplus revenues of the Irish Church to general moral and religious 
purposes, the same question upon which Mr. Stanley had left Lord 
Grey's ministry, he resigned. Lord Melbourne then liord 

came back to office, with Lord John Russell as ^econd^ ^ 
Home Secretary and Lord Palmerston Foreign ministry. 
Secretary. 

His first measure of importance was the Municipal Corporation 
Act, passed in 1835. Hitherto the governing bodies of Municipal 
towns had for the most part been close bodies which reform. 



428 William IV, iisss. 

filled up vacancies in their own ranks ; by the new Act all 
town councils were elected by the ratepayers, and in their turn 
elected the mayor and aldermen. This arrangement made quite 
a revolution in the Hfe of provincial towns ; it gave an education 
in the practice of self-government, and it removed many abuses. 
The Corporation of London was powerful enough to get itsel 
exempted from the provisions of the Act, and a few others from 
their insignificance escaped notice. 

By another Act the tithe question in England was settled. 

Hitherto rectors and vicars had collected their tithe, sometimes in 

kind, sometimes in accordance with a composition 

Tithe auestion. ^ 

arranged between the parson and the tithe-payers. 
This was very irritating, especially to Nonconformists. By the new 
Act the tithe was commuted into a rent-charge, calculated according 
to the average price of corn for the seven preceding years. 

In 1836 the circulation of newspapers was much increased by 

the duty upon tl^em being reduced to one penny. 

the duty on The same year the House of Commons began to 

newspapers, p^i^j^g]^ ^^^ Q^^^^n division lists, in this way giving 

accurate information to their constituents of the votes of their 

Publication of members. This and the publication of debates, 

division lists, allowed in 1771, have done as much as anything else 

to diffuse political knowledge throughout the country and to keep 

up an intelligent interest in the doings of Parliament. 

The next year, 1837, the genial old king died, and his niece. 
Death of the ^^ daughter of the Duke of Kent, succeeded to 
^^^- the throne by the title of Queen Victoria. 



CHAPTER VII. 

Victoria, 1837- 
Bom 1819 ; married, 1840, Albert of Saxe-Coburg. 

Chief Characters of the Eeign. — Lord Melbourne ; Sir Eoberfc Peel ; Lord 
John, afterwards Earl Russell ; Lord Palmerston ; the Earl of Aber- 
deen ; Lord Stanley, afterwards Earl of Derb}^ ; Daniel O'Connell ; 
Eichard Cobden ; John Bright ; W. E. Gladstone ; Benjamin Disraeli, 
created Earl of Beaconsfield ; Lord Hartington ; W. E. Forster ; 
C. S, Parnell ; the Marquess of Salisbury. 

Chief Contemporary Sovereigns. 



Russia. 


Italy. 


France. 


Prussia. 


Nicolas, 


Victor Emmanuel, 


Louis Philippe, 


"William, 


1825-1855. 


King of Sardinia, 


1830-1848. 


1861-1871. 


Alexander II., 


1849. 


Republic, 


Emperor in 


1855-1881. 


King of Italy, 


1848-1852. 


Germany, 


Alexander III., 


1861-1878. 


Louis Napoleon, 


1871- 


1881- 


Humbert, 1878- 


Emperor, 

1852-1870. 

Republic, 1870- 





The new queen, who had come of age at eighteen little more than 
a month before the death of her uncle, had lived in great privacy 
before her accession, but the impression she made on her first 
appearance was most favourable, and a hopeful feeling spread 
through all ranks of a prosperous and happy reign. In 1840 the 
queen married Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg, her cousin, who 
made her an excellent husband, and devoted himself to advance the 
moral and intellectual well-being of the people among whom he 
came to live. 

Her succession dissolved the connection between England and 
Hanover which had existed since 1714, as the Salic law, by which 
no woman could reign, was the rule in that country, separation 
and her uncle, the Duke of Cumberland, became ^^°™- s:anover. 
its king. The loss of Hanover, however, did no harm to England. 



43 o Victoria. i837- 

Its possession brought us neither honour nor profit, but, on the other 
hand, was a constant source of danger lest we should be dragged 
into German politics. 

A much more serious loss than that of Hanover, however, 

threatened to couple with disaster the accession of the new queen. 

Canada Canada was thoroughly disaffected. The difficulty 

question, there arose mainly from the difference between the 
French and English population. The Canada Act of 1774 had 
given the same government to all Canada, but had secured 
special privileges to the French ; but Pitt's Act of 1791 had 
divided Canada into two parts. One of these. Lower Canada, was 
inhabited almost exclusively by the descendants of the French ; 
the other. Upper Canada, by English and Scotch settlers, and by 
loyal Americans, who had crossed over into Canada when the 
United States became independent. Each of these states had a 
separate governor and legislature. This plan had not worked at 
all well. There were constant difficulties in both states between 
the legislature and the executive government, in which the English 
government supported the executive, and in 1837 Lower Canada 
broke into a revolt, which was easily suppressed by Sir J. 
Colborne. 

The Melbourne ministry then sent out Lord Durham, the ablest 
of the younger members of the Whig party, as special commissioner 
Lord Durham's "^^^^ Unlimited powers. In dealing with the ring- 

mission.i leaders of the rebellion, he, in order to avoid the 
excitement of a trial, banished them by his own authority to Ber- 
muda, and denounced death against them in case they should 
return. This act was approved in the colonj^, but it was attacked 
in the House of Lords by Lord Brougham, who had been irritated 
by not being again made chancellor on the return of the Melbourne 
ministry; and Lord Melbourne cancelled the ordinance. Lord 
Durham at once resigned, but his plans were carried into effect 
by his successor, Lord Sydenham. The Act of 1791 was reversed, 
and the two Canadas united in a legislative union, and the way was 
paved for a Federal union of all the North American colonies. 
Canada has since been conspicuous for its loyalty to Ihe English 
crown. 

The weakness which Lord Melbourne's government showed in the 



1839.] _ Melbourne. 



431 



case of Lord Durham was thoroughly characteristic of a ministry 
which pleased no one, but to which there was no -weakness of 
obvious successor. Sir Kobert Peel had no majority, Melbourne's 
and Lord Durham, the only man outside the official ministry, 
followers of Lord Melbourne who was strong enough to take a line 
of his own, was dying. This state of things was most exasperating 
to the ardent reformers, and resulted in the growth of agitation in 
the country. This agitation had two objects, and was conducted by 
two quite different classes of men — the manufacturers who wished 
to abohsh the corn laws, and the Eadicals who wished for further 
Parliamentary reform. 

The Eadicals had looked on the Reform Bill of 1832 with very 
different eyes to the Whigs. To the Whigs it had been a measure 
which was to settle the constitution of Parliament for xhe policy of 
at least a very long time ; to the Radicals it was only *^® Radicals, 
a step in the right direction. Accordingly, when the Radicals found 
that the first fervour of reforming zeal had died away, and that 
the Melbourne administration was little if any more energetic than 
a Conservative government, they began to agitate for further Reform. 
Their wishes were embodied in a Charter, in which they de- 
manded (1) universal suffrage, on the ground that every grown-up 
man had a right to a vote ; (2) vote by ballot, to 
secure the voter from intimidation ; (3) annual 
Parliaments, to secure the dependence of members on the wishes of 
their constituents ; (4) payment of members, in order to enable 
poor men to leave their work if elected ; (5) the abolition of the 
property qualification, by which no one could sit unless he had a 
certain amount of property (this rule, as a matter of fact had 
long been evaded) ; and (6) equal electoral districts, in order to 
make the value of each man's vote as nearly equal as possible. 

The advocates of this scheme, who were called Chartists, were of 
two kinds. Those who were in favour of force were called Physical 
Force Chartists, those in favour of agitation only, Moral ^j^e chartist 
Force Chartists. The leaders were Feargus O'Connor, ag-itation. 
a member of Parliament, and Hetherington, Vincent, and Lovett, 
working men. The Chartists held large public meetings, which 
sometimes, in the agitated state of the country, led to riots, and in 
1839 an attempt at rebellion was made at Newport, in South Wales, 



432 



Victoria. [i839* 



under the lead ot Mr. Frost, a magistrate. This was, of course, 
easily suppressed, and some of the leaders were transported ; but 
the agitation continued for years, and roused great enthusiasm 
among the unrepresented classes. 

The other movement in favour of free trade in corn had its origin 
in the wants of the manufacturers, who saw that one effect of the 
The free trade ^^^^^ \^'^'& was to keep bread at a higher price than it 

movement, would have been had foreign corn been allowed to 
be imported free of duty, so that foreigners might, whenever they 
could, undersell the English farmers in the home market. This 
artificial raising of the price necessarily increased the hardships 
of the unemployed workpeople whenever there were bad times in 
the manufacturing districts, and had the effect of making the 
interest of the manufacturing population hostile to that of the 
country districts, which depended for their prosperity on the con- 
dition of agriculture and the amount of employment which could 
be given on the land. The manufacturers, therefore, set on foot 
the Anti-Corn Law League, whose most active spirits were Richard 
Cobden and John Bright, both manufacturers and men of great 
eloquence, and they set on foot a crusade against the corn laws, 
which they carried on in the manufacturing districts. 

While the country was thus being agitated by Chartism on one 
side, and the anti-corn law agitation on the other, the Melbourne 
Resig'nation of ministry was in the last stage of weakness. In the 

the Whigs, general election on the queen's accession, the Con- 
servatives had 310 members. In 1839 the government only carried 
a bill for suspending the constitution of Jamaica, in which island 
there had been constant trouble since the Act of 1833, by five votes. 
Upon this Lord Melbourne sent in his resignation, and Sir 
B. Peel attempted to form a ministry, but was foiled by an 
unexpected difficulty. It had always been the 
chamber practice at court that the personal attendants of 
ques ion. ^^^ sovereign should be of the same way of thinking 
as the ministers, and therefore that when a ministry resigned the 
household should resign too. This had been easy in the case of a 
king, but it was not so easy in the case of a queen, who naturally 
objected to have her domestic circle broken up ; and Lord Melbourne 
had made it stiU more difficult by putting the most confidential 



1841.] Lord Melbourne — Sir Robert Peel. 433 

places into the hands of the wives and sisters of his own colleagues. 
Sir E. Peel naturally wished that these should be changed, but, 
as the queen objected, he gave way, and threw up the task of 
forming a ministry. Melbourne thereupon came back Return of liord 
again ; but his ignominious return, as it was said, Melbourne. 
" behind the petticoats of the ladies of the Bedchamber," was of 
small advantage to his party, for the Whigs were weaker than ever. 

The only important event of their ministry at home was the 
adoption by Kowland Hill of the penny postage scheme in 1839, 
which quite revolutionized the postal arrangements 
of the country, and not only conferred an immense 
boon on all classes, but also gave a vast impetus to the prosperity 
of the country by the increased facilities it offered to business. 

In the colonies, the last years of William IV. and the early years 
of Queen Victoria were of considerable importance. In 1836 South 
Australia was first colonized, its capital taking the progress of the 
name of Adelaide from the queen of William IV. colonies 
The next year Natal was founded by Dutch settlers, who had made 
their way north from the Cape of Good Hope. At first they were 
independent, but in 1841 Natal was placed under English rule. 
In 1839 we acquired Aden, which is to the entrance of the Bed Sea 
what Gibraltar is to the Mediterranean. The same year New 
Zealand was first permanently colonized. 

In 1841 Sir R. Peel carried a vote of want of confidence in the 
ministry by one vote. Parhament was dissolved, and in the general 
election the Conservatives, carried by the reaction General 
which had shown itself since 1832, secured 367 seats, ®faii oTtS*^ 
giving them a majority over the Whigs of 86. Lord "Wiiig's. 
Melbourne was at once defeated, and resigned oflSce. The resignation 
of Lord Melbourne brings to a close the period which followed imme- 
diately on the passing of the Reform Bill. Many important measures 
had been passed, but the enthusiasm had died out. The defection 
of the Chartists and the independent wishes of the Anti-Corn Law 
League had weakened the Whigs. On the other hand, the great repu- 
tation of Sir R, Peel as a financier, a department in which the Whigs 
were believed to be weak, was a tower of strength to the Conserva- 
tives in the towns, while the fear of the abolition of the corn laws 
was the mainstay of the Conservatives among the farmers. 

2 P 



434 Victoria, [i84i- 

The part which Lord Melbourne had had to play since the accession 

of the queen was a most difficult and important one, for upon him 

liord fell the duty of teaching her the conduct of business 

Melbourne's ^^ ^^ functions of the Sovereign in the working of 

influence on o '-' 

tiie aueen. the constitution. This Lord Melbourne, in spite of 
his want of tact in the arrangement of the household, is admitted to 
have done with great skill, and for it the nation will always owe a 
debt of gratitude to his memory. 

The chief members of Sir E. Peel's ministry were the Duke of 
Wellington, who led the Lords ; Lord Lyndhurst, Lord Chancellor ; 
Lord Aberdeen, who was Foreign Secretary ; Lord Stanley, War 
and Colonial Secretary ; and Sir J. Graham, Home Secretary. Mr. 
Gladstone was Vice-President and afterwards President of the 
Board of Trade. 

The first concern of the new government was with Indian affairs. 
Since the Mahratta war of 1803, the British territories in India 

Progress of ^^^ made great progress. In 1813 we conquered 
India, Nepaul, a territory which lies close to the Himalaya 
mountains. In 1818 we put down the Pindarries — bands of profes- 
sional robbers who infested the territory of the Great Mogul. In 
1819 we acquired Singapore, an island which commands the Straits 
of Malacca. In 1824 we made war upon Burmah, and took Ran- 
goon and the surrounding territory on the coast, leaving the district 
of Upper Burmah, annexed in 1885, mdependent. In 1826 we took 
Assam. 

These annexations made our connection with India more that of 

rulers than ever, and when the East India Company's charter was 

renewed in 1833, the trade with India and China was 

Keformoftlie \ rm /-, i 

East India thrown Completely open. The Company, however. 
Company. ^^^ preserved its position as a political body, and 
continued to govern India, subject to the Board of Control which 
Pitt had established, twenty-five years longer. 

Meanwhile the steady advance of Russia in Central Asia had 

begun to excite fear that she would intrigue against us in India, if 

Russians in ^nly as a counterpoise to our well-understood hostility 

Afghanistan, ^o her designs on Constantinople; and when, in 1838, 

it was learnt that a Russian envoy had been received at Cabul, the 

capital of Afghanistan, the country which includes the great towns 



1844.J Sir Robert Peel. 435 

of Herat, Cabul, Ghuznee, and Candahar, commanding the apr 
proaclies to India on the north-west, a demand was sent to Dost 
Mahomed, Ameer of Afghanistan, that he should be dismissed. 

As the Ameer refused, Enghsh troops invaded the country and 
captured Ghuznee, Candahar, and Cabul. Dost Mahomed sur- 
rendered, and Shah Sujah was set up in his place, pirst Afghan 
Unfortunately, the English leaders at Cabul allowed "^^^" 

themselves to be outmtted by Akbar Khan, Dost Mahomed's son, 
and agreed to retreat to the frontier under a safe conduct. This 
was broken, and of the whole army only one man, ^. 
Dr. Brydon, survived the attacks of the enemy and retreat from 

. CabvQ. 

the bitter cold of the Afghan winter, and reached 
Jellalabad, at the mouth of the Khyber Pass, where he found 
General Sale still holding out. To wipe away our disgrace, new 
armies were sent into Afghanistan, which recaptured Candahar and 
Cabul. After all Dost Mahomed was restored. 

Hardly was the Afghan war over, when a misunderstanding 
with the Ameers of Scinde, the territory which lies at Annexation of 
the mouth of the river Indus, caused an invasion of ^ * 

' Meeanee and 

their territory by Sir Charles Napier. The Ameers' Hyderabad, 
troops were beaten in the battles of Meeanee and Hyderabad, and 
their land added to the Company's territories in 1843. 

The war against Scinde was quickly followed by one against the 
Sikhs, who occupied the Punjab, a district of five 

-.1 f. 1 • f n • 11 mi ■ First Sikli -war. 

rivers, all of which now into the Indus. Their power- 
ful army threatened the peace of the surrounding districts, and 
as they refused to disband we attacked and defeated Aiiwai and 
them in the great battles of Aliwal and Sobraon, in _ ° ^f?.^,' , 

° ' Second Sikh 

1846. Three years later war again broke out. The war. 

Sikhs were defeated at ChiUianwallah and Goojerat, and the 
Punjab was annexed by the Company in 1849. 

Meanwhile at home the first years of Sir R. Peel's ministry were 
not marked by any events of first-rate importance. Free church 
In Scotland a great secession took place from the °^fOTmed!^^ 
established Presbyterian Church, and the seceders i843. 
formed the Free Church of Scotland. In Ireland ^^ 

Maynooth 

Sir R. Peel did a gracious act by passing a bill to grant 

increase the yearly allowance which had been made 



43 6 Victoria. [i842- 

since 1795 in aid of the maintenance of tlie Eoman Catholic College 
of Maynooth, where Irish priests were usually educated. Mr. 
Gladstone left the ministry because he had previously written 
against such a measure. Sir K. Peel also devoted great attention 
to finance, and in his budget of 1842 followed the 
policy of Pitt and Huskisson by taking the duty oflf 
a very large number of small articles, for which he substituted an 
income tax for a limited period. 

The great question of the day, however, was that of the com laws. 
The real difficulty was, how to make things as easy as possible for 

Corn law the manufacturers without ruining the agriculturists 

auestion. -j^y throwing vast tracts of arable land out of culti- 
vation. Since 1815 various schemes had been tried to this end, 
and in 1842 Sir R, Peel arranged a sliding scale by which the duty 
on foreign corn varied exactly according to the price in England, so 
that it could be introduced as soon as ever it would pay to sell it. 
Lord John Russell, who was now the leader of the Whigs, was 
imderstood to be in favour of a fixed duty of eight shillings in the 
quarter, which, as it would always be the same, would be more 
likely to make trade steady. However, the free-traders Cobden 
and Bright still agitated for total repeal, and in 1845 they were 
assisted by the terrible catastrophe of the Irish famine. 

For years the Irish had learnt to rely upon the potato for their 
main support, and in that year the potato crop failed. It was certain 

Tiieirisii that 1846 would be a year of famine, and it seemed 

famine. intolerable that the price of corn should be kept up by 

artificial means. Accordingly Peel made up his mind that the corn 

Peel ciianges ^^'^'^ must go, and offered to resign his post, feeling that 

Ms mind. ^g g^j- ^j^g general election the mamtenance of the 
com laws had been one of the promises of the Conservatives, he was 
not the right person to propose their repeal. 

Lord John Russell, however, failed to form a government, because 
Lord Grey (son of the former prime minister) refused to sit in the 

Lord John Cabinet if Lord Palmerston, who had alarmed the 
"^tcfform^^^ Whigs by his vigorous action in foreign policy, was 

ministry. aUowcd to be Foreign Secretary. Lord Stanley, 
who refused to have anything to do with the repeal of the com laws, 
was not prepared to form a government. 



1848.] Sir Robert Peel — Lord John Russell. 437 

Sir R. Peel therefore remained in office as the only possible 
minister, and replaced Lord Stanley by Mr. Grladstone, who came 
back as a free-trader. In 1846 Peel carried a measure 
for the total repeal of the corn laws. The effect of corn laws 
tliis was to at once lower the price of corn, and as ^^ ^^^^' 
soon afterwards there was a great revival of the prosperity of the 
comitry, the blow was not felt by the agricultural 
population with as great severity as they had expected; *^ effect, 
while the knowledge that bread is always as cheap as possible is 
a great preservative against popular outbreaks in tune of bad trade. 

It could not be expected, however, that the agricultural interest 
would easily forgive Peel for having, as they thought, betrayed 
them. Accordingly they formed a separate party in Anger of the 
the House of Commons under the lead of Lord George ag-ricxuturists. 
Bentinck, with Mr. Disraeli as their chief spokesman. This party 
denounced Peel with all their might, and when in consequence of 
the disturbed state of Ireland caused by the famine it was necessary 
to re-enact the Arms Act, they jomed the Whigs defeat 
in voting against it, and Peel was driven to resign Lordjoim 
office. Upon this Lord John Russell became Prime ^^^seu Prime 
Minister, with Lord Palmerston as Foreign Secretary. 

The year 1848 was marked by revolutions in almost every capital 
in Europe. In France the government of Louis Philippe was over- 
thrown and a Republic established, of which Louis Ti^e year of 
Napoleon Buonaparte, nephew of Napoleon the First, revolutions, 
was afterwards elected president. Similar disturbances occurred in 
Italy, Germany, and Austria, and a great impetus was given to the 
desire of both Germany and Italy for national unity, and to the 
aspirations of all nations after popular government. England's 
share in the upheaval was a rebelhon in Ireland and a great Chartist 
demonstration. 

After O'Connell had secured the removal of the disabilities of the 
CathoHcs he at once began an agitation for the repeal of the Union 
and in spite of the reform of the Irish Church, the o'Conneirs re- 
settlement of the tithe question, the reform of Irish P^ai agitation, 
municipal boroughs, and other Irish legislation, he contmued to 
agitate under the governments of Lords Grey and Melbourne. In 
the time of Su- R. Peel the movement reached formidable dimensions ; 



438 Victoria. 



1843 



O'Connell's word was law in Ireland, and lie had a large following 
in the House of Commons. Some of his supporters in Ireland were 
eager to have recourse to arms, but O'Connell, rightly appreciating 
the uselessness of this, forbade it, and his authority was sufficient to 
Prosecution of secure the putting off without disturbance of a huge 

o'ConneU. mcetuig at Tara, which had been forbidden by the 
government. O'Connell, however, had gone so far that he was 
prosecuted by the government, and convicted in 1844. 

Though the sentence was set aside on the ground of a legal error, 

O'ConneU never recovered his influence ; but the failure of his 

Outbreak of Constitutional agitation exasperated the younger 

rebellion. members of his party, and preparations for rebellion 
were soon begun. The leaders advocated rebelhon in the United 
Irishman newspaper, and when outbreaks occurred on the continent 
the excitement in Ireland became very great. Government, how- 
ever, prosecuted the leaders, and secured the conviction and 
transportation of Mitchel, the editor of the United Irishman. 
This action disconcerted the conspirators, and in 1848 the actual 
rising, which was led by Mr. Smith O'Brien, a member of Parlia- 
ment, was a complete failure. 

In London, the Chartists organized a great demonstration on 

Kennington Common, from which they intended to march in 

Great Chartist procession to Westminster, and to present a monster 

meeting-. petition to Parliament. Great fears were raised that 
this would result in a riot, and as wild rumours were afloat of the 
number of armed Chartists who were ready for rebellion, military 
precautions were taken by the Duke of Wellington, and numbers of 
special constables were sworn in. The whole affair turned out a 
farce. The procession was never formed. The petition, when 
presented, was found to contain numbers of fictitious and absurd 
names, such as the Duke of Wellington, Prince Albert, and Punch, 
and society soon regained its confidence. 

The subsidence of the Chartist agitation for reform was soon 

followed by the taking up of the question in Parliament itself, and in 

1851 Mr. Locke King carried against the government 

Reform taken . , . ° , „ ^, . . ^ . 

up in a motion tor making the franchise in counties the 

ar lamen . ^2ime, as that in boroughs. On this Lord John Russell 

resigned; but as Sir R. Peel had died in 1850, and Lord Stanley 



1853.] Lord John Russell— Earl of Derby. 439 

could not form a government, Lord John consented to resume 
office. 

In 1849 a great step was taken in the history of the British Empire 
by the grant of Parhamentary institutions to the Australian 
colonies. This grant has been extended by degrees Parliaments 
to other colonies, and has been of the utmost im- Australian ^ 
portance in securing to the colonies the control over colonies, 
their own affairs to which such flourishing and loyal communities 
are justly entitled. The same year the navigation Repeal of the 
laws, which had been modified by Huskisson, were ^^^aws.'"'' 
altogether repealed. 

In the year 1851 the first of the series of great exhibitions was 
held, chiefly through the influence of Prince Albert. Great 
Hopes were aroused in some quarters that wars Exuibition. 
would soon be unknown, and that commercial rivalry would 
engross the energies of all nations to the exclusion of military 
ambition. 

However, in December the same year Louis Napoleon took 
advantage of the unpopularity of some acts of the Kepublican 
deputies, and of the popularity of the name of coup d'Etat 
Napoleon among the soldiers and the peasantry, to j^f^JJ^^^^^ 
overthrow the repubhc which he had sworn to defend, 
and to secure absolute power for himself. A year later he took 
the title of Emperor of the French. 

It was generally believed that the new emperor would try to 
repair the disasters of his uncle, by winning military success over 
Russia, Austria, and Prussia, and especially that he Fears of Frencii 
would attempt to avenge Waterloo. Accordingly, ambition. 
Lord John Russell brought in a bill to strengthen ourselves by 
reorganizing the militia. To part of this bill Lord Palmerston, who 
had been compelled to resign his office of Foreign Secretary in 
consequence of a letter he had witten to Louis Napoleon without 
the consent of his colleagues, objected, and he succeeded in defeating 
the government. On this Lord John again resigned, Resignation of 
and the post of Premier was taken by Lord Stanley, ^Ru'^sg^e^ii!'' 
who had now succeeded his father as Earl of Derby, i^ord Derby's 
and ]Mr. Disraeli became ChanceUor of the Exchequer. ^^^^ ministry. 
This government, however, did not last long, for Mr. Disraeh's budget 



440 



Victoria. 



[1852- 



was so severely criticised by Mr. Gladstone, that Lord Derby was 
defeated. 

A coalition ministry was then formed by a union between the 

followers of Sir E. Peel, of whom the chief were Lord Aberdeen, 

the Duke of Newcastle, Sir J. Graham, Mr. Sidney 

Aberdeen's Herbert, and Mr. Gladstone, with Lord John Russell 

minis ry. ^^^ Lord Palmerston. In this government Lord 

Aberdeen was Premier, Mr. Gladstone Chancellor of the Exchequer ; 

Lord John Russell was for a few weeks Foreign Secretary, but 

in 1853 was succeeded by Earl Clarendon and Lord Palmerston, 

to whose foreign policy the Peelites objected, took the Home 

Office. At home Mr. Gladstone continued Peel's financial policy of 

remitting taxation as far as possible and so securing the advantages 

of free-trade. 




THE OPERATIONS IN THE EAST, 1854-6. 

It is not, however, for their home pohcy that the Aberdeen 
government is famous; the chief event of their time was the 
Origin of the Russian War, into which we entered as the allies of 
Russian war. YY2.rx'^Q and Turkey. Fear of Russian intrig-ues 
against the Turkish empire was the cause of the war. The Czar 
demanded that the Sultan should acknowledge his right to protect 
the Christian subjects of Turkey. This would have made Russia 
all-powerful in Turkey, and England and France supported the 
Sultan in his refusal. Unfortunately, Lord Aberdeen's ministers 



1856.] Lord Aberdeen — Lord Palmers ton. 441 

failed to make Russia understand that they meant what they said, 
and that war would follow if their demands were not regarded. 
The Emperor of the French was desirous of fighting the Russians as 
the ally of England, and the feebleness of the ministry allowed 
England to be dragged into a war of which neither we nor the 
Czar Nicolas were desirous. 

The Russians began by attacking the Danubian provinces of 
Turkey, and after they had been driven back by the Turks, the 
English and French decided to invade the Crimea Outbreak 
in order to destroy the great Russian arsenal of ^^ ^^ ^.^ 
Sebastopol, which was to the Black Sea what Ports- the Crimea, 
mouth is to the English Channel. On landing, the aUies, under 
Lord Raglan, defeated the Russians at the battle of 

° ' . Alma. 

the Alma, September 20, and then formed the siege 
of Sebastopol by sea and land. The attempts of the Russians to 
reheve it led to the battles of Balaclava on October 25, and 
Inkerman on November 5, in which the allies were Balaclava, 
again victorious ; but the severity of the winter and inkerman. 
the miserable arrangements of the home government made the 
siege a much longer operation than had been expected. 

The disgraceful mismanagement of the war by Lord Aberdeen 
and some of his colleagues, caused Mr. Roebuck to bring forward 
in the House of Commons a motion for a committee to inquire into 
its cause. This led to the resignation of the ministry in January, 
1855. Lord Palmerston, in whose vigour every one behoved, then 
became head of a Whig ministry. The new 

. . 1 ., Lord 

ministry pushed on the siege vigorously. A railway Paimerston's 
was made from Balaclava to the camp, and supplies ^ ^i^is ry. 
of all kinds were sent out in abundance. In the spring Sardinia 
joined the alliance, and in September, 1855, Sebastopol fell. 
Besides invading the Crimea, the English fleet had bombarded 
some of the Russian ports in the Baltic, but without much success, 
while in Asia Minor the Russians took Kars from the Turks. 
Neither side saw any chance of inflicting fatal loss on the other, 
and in 1856 peace was concluded at Paris. By that Results of the 
peace Russia was bound not to refortify Sebastopol '^^^• 

nor to keep men-of-war in the Black Sea. These conditions were 
repudiated by Russia in 1870; but the result of the war was to 
cripple her resources for some time. 



442 



Victoria. [i856- 



The war witli Eussia was followed by a difficulty with Cliina. 

The Chinese were very hostile to European traders, and the first 

war with them had occurred in 1839. This had 

CMnese wars. ^^^^^^^ -^ ^^^ cession of Hongkong to England, and 

the opening of several other ports to our trade. In 1856 the 
Chmese, quite legally, seized the Arrow, a vessel of the kind known 
as a lorcha, which was flying the English flag. This led to a 
quarrel with the Chinese Custom House officers, m which the 
Enghsh were in the wrong, and war followed. The conduct of 
Lord Palmerston was vigorously attacked by the Peelites, by 
Lord John Eussell, by the Conservatives, and by Cob den and 
Bright, who had become the leaders of the Manchester school of 
politicians, who disapproved of Lord Palmerston's vigorous assertion 
of the rights of Englishmen on this and other occasions. On being 
beaten in the House of Commons Palmerston requested the queen 
to dissolve Parhament, and the country gave him a large majority. 

Before the war with China had gone far, the country was startled 
by the news of a mutiny among the Bengal sepoys in India. The 

Causes of the causes of the outbreak were numerous. Much excite- 
indian mutiny, ij^ent had been caused by Lord Dalhousie's annex- 
ation of Oudh, from which many of the Bengal sepoys came. 
There was a widespread but unfounded fear among the natives that 
the English intended to introduce Christianity by force and to put 
an end to their cherished practices and superstitions. There was a 
prophecy that the English rule should only last for one hundred 
years, and that time had now elapsed since the battle of Plassey. 
Lastly, the authorities had served out rifle cartridges, the bullets of 
which were wrapped in greased rags. This grease was said by the 
natives to be made of cow's fat and hog's lard, and as the Hindoos 
reverenced the cow, while the Mohammedans detested the hog, the 
result of the mixture was to irritate both the Hindoos and the 
Mohammedans. 

Accordingly, the Bengal sepoys broke into revolt, murdered their 
officers, seized Delhi, where they set up as leader the descendant 

Outbreak of of the Great Mogul, and tried to raise a national 

the mutiny, rebellion. The English army, however, at once 
besieged Delhi, which prevented the mutiny from spreading, while 
other parties held out at Lucknow, the capital of Oudh, and at 



1858. Lord Palmerston — Lord Derby. 443 

Cawnpore on the Ganges. Lower down the river the English never 
lost the upper hand. Unfortunately, Cawnpore was taken before 
relief came, and a terrible massacre followed. Lucknow held out 
till General Havelock forced his way in and reinforced the garrison. 
After great exertions Delhi was captured, mainly OAving to the 
fidelity of the recently conquered Sikhs, which enabled Sir John 
Lawrence, the commissioner of the Punjab, whose admirable rule 
had in four years completely won over the Sikhs, to send large 
reinforcements to the besiegers of Delhi. This success broke the 
neck of the mutiny. Soon Sir Cohn Campbell arrived from England 
with reinforcements, and though very severe fighting followed, 
especially at the final relief of Lucknow, the country was at length 
reduced to quiet. 

Since the mutiny the proportion of English to native soldiers has 
been much larger than before. The result of the mutiny was to bring 
to an end the long and great career of the East India Results of the 
Company. A bill was passed transferring its powers mutiny, 
to the Crown, which administers them through a Secretary of State 
in England and a Viceroy or Governor-general in India. 

In 1858 Lord Palmerston's government was defeated on a 
Conspiracy to Murder Bill, which had been brought in in consequence 
of the discovery that a plot made by Orsini, an Itahan, conspiracy to 
to murder the Emperor of the French had been con- ^Murder Bin. 
trived in England. It was thought that Lord Palmerston had shown 
too much deference to the wishes of the French, against whom the 
English were irritated on account of the vainglorious and threatening 
language of the French military officers. In consequence of the fear 
of invasion, large bodies of volunteers were formed volunteers 
after the model of those at the beginning of the formed, 
century, and these have since become a most important part of our 
system of national defence. 

Lord Palmerston was followed by Lord Derby, who again m.ade 
Mr. Disraeli his Chancellor of the Exchequer. By them a Reform 
Bill was introduced, which attempted, while extend- ^ ^^ ^ , 

' . . Lord Derby's 

ing the franchise, to give greater weight to education second 
and thrift by giving votes to graduates and school- ""^^ ry. 
masters, holders of savings in the public funds and savings banks. 
These were stigmatized by Mr. Bright as "fancy franchises," 



/|44 Victoria. 0.858- 

and on tlie defeat of the bill, Lord Palmerston again became Prime 

Lord Minister, with Lord John Eussell as Foreign Secre- 

^^ second''^ ^ ^^'^li ^^^ ^^^ Grladstone, who had the reputation of 

ministry. being the greatest financier of the day, and who now 
ranked as a Liberal, Chancellor of the Exchequer. This government 
brought in a Reform Bill, but soon dropped it ; and as neither Lord 
Palmerston nor the Conservatives wished for reform, the subject was 
not brought forward except by private members for several years. 
Tn 1860 Cubden negotiated a commercial treaty with France, 
similar to that made by Pitt in 1786, by which both countries 
agreed to lower their customs duties with a view to the promotion 
of commerce. In 1861 the duty on paper was abolished, and as 
the tax on newpapers themselves had been repealed in 1855, the 
press has since this date been untrammelled by taxation. 

During Lord Palmerston's government, however, several very 

important events happened abroad. In Northern Italy, in 1859, 

^ France ioined Sardinia in expelling the Austrians 

Formation of "^ jt o 

the kingdom from Lombardy, w^hich was efiected by the battles of 
^ ^" Montebello, Magenta, and Solferino ; and in the South 
Garibaldi freed Sicily and Naples. These countries, with Tuscany 
and Parma, joined Sardinia, whose king, Victor Emmanuel, was in 
1861 proclaimed King of Italy by an Italian Parliament, the States 
of the Church and Venice being still in the hands of the Pope and 
Austria respectively. 

In 1861 a war broke out between the Northern and Southern 
States of North America, which threatened to result in the division 
Civil war in tiie of the United States into two hostile commmiities. 
X7nited States. ^ ^^^ ^^^ England and the European States re- 
mained neutral. In spite, however, of our neutrality, a cruiser, the 
Alabama^ was built at Birkenhead for the Southern States, and 
allowed to leave the harbour. This act was regarded by the 
Northerners as an infringement of our neutrality, and caused great 
irritation, which was not allayed till 1872, when Mr. Grladstone's 
Government submitted the matter to arbitration, and we had to pay 
£3,000,000 as damages. In the end the North triumphed, and 
the integrity of the Union was preserved mainly through the in- 
domitable perseverance of President Lincoln and the military skill 
of General Grant. Dm^ing the war the slaves of the Southern 



1863.] 



Lord Falmerston, 445 



States were declared to be free, and since tlien the negroes of the 
United States have had the same rights as their fellow-citizens. 

The same ministry saw a distinct step taken in the direction of 
German unity. Ever since 1814, when Germany had risen against 
Napoleon, many of the best statesmen of that country progress of 
had wished to see her united into one people, instead German unity, 
of being divided into a number of small and often hostile states; 
but the opposition of the small courts to any idea of extinction was 
a great bar to progress in this direction. In 1834, however, a move 
was made by uniting all Germany into a ZoUverein or Customs 
Union; and the revolutionary year of 1848 gave a further impetus 
to the question. So long, however, as Austria was the leading State 
nothing could be done, and France viewed with jealousy any 
change which was likely to make Germany stronger ; but m 1861 
William I. became King of Prussia, and made Prince Bismarck his 
chief adviser. This great statesman saw that German unity 
could be effected by makmg Prussia the leading State, and he 
steadily worked for that purpose and encouraged the idea of 
German unity. Up to 1864, however, Austria and Prussia were on 
fair terms, and in that year they took from Denmark war against 
the provmces of Ilolstein and Schleswig, which were Denmark. 
German by nationality, but had long been in Denmark's hands. 
Two years later, however, in 1866, they quarrelled, and a war ensued 
between Prussia and a few of the North German States, against 
Austria, who was supported by Hanover, Bavaria, victory of 
Saxony, and the South Germans. In this war Prussia /^sTr^^a^^d 
was completely victorious, owing to the genius of her i^er aUies. 
great general, Moltke, and the advantage given by the possession of 
a breech-loading rifle, and completely defeated the Austrians at the 
battle of Sadowa. The result was to exclude Austria from inter- 
fering in Germany proper, and to place Prussia, as Bismarck intended, 
at the head of the German nation. At the end of ^^^^^3^^^^^^ 
this war Italy acquired Venice by treaty, but Borne by itaiy. 
still remained under the rule of the Pope. 

In 1861 the queen had the misfortune to lose her Deatii of Prince 
husband, the Prince Consort, who had long been her ^^^""^^^^^ 
chief adviser. In 1863 the Prince of Wales was the Prince of 
married to the Princess Alexandra of Denmark. 



446 Victoria. [i865- 

Tlie death of Lord Palmerston in 1865 was tlie end of a period 
which may be said to have begun in 1835 with the first ministry of 
Death of liord Sir R. Peel. During it many most valuable measures 
ai^^be^nning ^^^ \)Q,Qis. passed and many reforms instituted. It had 
of a new period, seen the establishment on a large scale of our railway 
and steamboat systems, the introduction of the penny post and the 
telegraph, the advance of all forms of education, and the formation 
of a widespread public opinion. This opinion had latterly taken 
the shape of a desire for further Parliamentary reform, and it was 
universally expected that the death of Lord Palmerston would be 
followed by a movement in that direction. 

Accordingly, the new Prime Minister, Earl (formerly Lord John) 

Eussell, framed a Reform Bill, which was introduced by Mr. Gladstone. 

This bill was a moderate measure, and consequently 

second pleased nobody. It was disliked by Mr. Bright and 

ministry. ^^ Radicals because it did not go far enough, and 
by the Conservatives and moderate Whigs because it went too 

Mr liowe's f^^' ^^^ •^^- Robert Lowe, a Whig, went so far as 
ease. to form a group of members to oppose it. These 

discontented Whigs were likened by Mr. Bright to the followers 
of David in the cave of Adullam, and were hence called the 
Lord Derby's Adullamites. They were strong enough to enable Mr. 
third ministry. pigraeH to defeat the bill, and Lord Derby upon that 
came into office with a Conservative government, of which Mr. 
Disraeli was leader in the House of Commons. 

Reform had now been attempted in vain by private members 

and by both Whig and Tory governments. There was a strong 

feeling; that the question ought to be settled, espe- 

The Reform ° . . f , . ^. 

auestion cially as large meetmgs m the country and riots m 
settled. Hyde Park showed that the unenfranchised classes 
were thoroughly in earnest in their demand for votes. Accordingly, 
the government determined instead of merely lowering the fran- 
chise from £10 to £6 as had been proposed, to settle the matter 
once for all by giving a vote to all householders in towns. This 
course was not popular with many Conservatives, and Lord Cran- 
bourne (afterwards Marquess of Salisbury) and Lord Carnarvon 
i-esigned office ; but it was supported by the Liberals, and a bill to 
this effect was successfully passed in 1867. At the same time 



1871.] Lord Derby — Disraeli^Gladstone. 447 

the franchise in the counties was given to all £12 householders, 
and a partial redistribution of seats was effected, by 
which, following the method of 1832, many members ^°anS°se^ 
were taken from ancient but small boroughs and m towns, 
given to rising towns or to populous counties. 

Meanwhile the state of Ireland had begun to attract attention. 
The armed outbreak of 1848 had proved a failure ; but the large 
part taken by Irishmen in the American war had serious state 
filled the leaders of disaffection with the hope of of Ireland, 
getting Irish soldiers from America; and accordingly, Stephens, who 
had taken part in the rising of 1848, formed the Irish penian 
Eepublican Brotherhood, the members of which are Conspiracy, 
generally known as Fenians. The attempt at armed insurrection 
completely failed, but numerous outrages were perpetrated both in 
England and Ireland. 

Accordingly, Mr. Gladstone, who was now regarded as the leader 
of the Liberal party, declaring that it was unjust to Ireland to main- 
tain the Irish Church, determined to disestablish it. Gladstone's 
In this he was supported by the Liberal party, and ^^^^^ PoHcy. 
he carried a resolution in favour of disestabhshment against the 
government. In the general election which followed. General 
the Liberals, as had been the case in 1832, secured a Election, 
large majority, having 128 votes more than their opponents, and Mr. 
DisraeH, who had become Prime Minister on Lord Derby's retire- 
ment through ill health, immediately resigned. 

The new ministry, of which Mr. Gladstone was Premier, Mr. 
Lowe Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Mr, Bright President of 
the Board of Trade, was pledged to extensive reforms concessions 
both in Ireland and England. In the former it *« Iceland, 
disestablished and partially disendowed the Irish Church, passed 
a Land Bill, giving Irish tenants the power of selling their tenant- 
right and unexhausted improvements to the incoming tenant, which 
it was hoped would permanently assuage the ill-feehng which had 
existed between landlord and tenant in that country, and attempted 
unsuccessfully to estabhsh a new system of Irish university education. 

In England Mr. Forster proposed, in 1870, an Education Act, by 
which School Boards were to be elected, where neces- Reforms 
sary, by the inhabitants of parishes and boroughs, "^ England, 



448 Victoria. [i87i- 

with a view to filling up at the expense of the ratepayers any 
deficiencies in the supply of elementary education which had been 
already provided by the philanthropy of the clergy or other 
benevolent persons. The University Test Act, passed in 1871, 
allowed Nonconformists and Catholics to take their degrees at 
Oxford and Cambridge universities. A Ballot Act, by which secret 
voting in elections was secured, was passed in 1872. An Act cre- 
ating a Supreme Court of Judicature including all those courts 
which from time to time had sprung out of the old Curia Eegis, 
such as those of Queen's Bench, Common Pleas, and Chancery, was 
passed in 1873. In 1871 the queen, by the advice of the govern- 
ment, cancelled the Koyal Warrant by which officers in the army 
bought and sold their commissions. 

Abroad, the great events were the Franco-German war of 1870- 

71, during which, after a series of defeats, Louis Napoleon was 

forced to surrender at Sedan and dethroned; Paris 

orei&n airs. ^^^ taken ; all Germany was united under the rule 
of the Kmg of Prussia, who took the title of German Emperor ; 
and France lost the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, which, like 
Sleswig and Holstein, were claimed by Germany. After the fall 
of Napoleon France again became a republic. 

Duiing the war the Itahans took Eome, which became the capital 
of united Italy, and so brought to an end the temporal 

repudiation powcr of the Popc. The English ministry secured 

of tiie Black ^^ neutrality of Belgium, which had been guaranteed 

S3Q£L CX3/US6S 

of tiie Treaty in 1839; but Eussia having declared her intention 
of Pans. ^^ again placing men-of-war on the Black Sea, the 
Treaty of Paris was set aside in her favour. 

In 1874 Mr. Gladstone suddenly dissolved Parliament, proposing 
if replaced in power to abolish the income-tax. A ConservatiA'-e 
General reaction, however, similar to that which followed the 
Election. ^^^^ Eeform Bill, had set in, and the Conservatives 
ministry. having gained a majority of forty-eight over all the 
other parties, Mr. Disraeh returned to power. A period of stagna- 
tion in legislation followed the reforming zeal of Mr. Gladstone, and 
the chief interest of the nation was given to foreign politics. 

The state of the Christian provinces of Turkey had again become 
very serious, and not only did Herzegovina break out into revolt, 



1880.] Earl of Beaconsfield. 449 

but also Servia engaged in open war with Turkey. The great dan- 
ger was, that Russia would use these troubles as an 
opening for pushing on her usual designs against ^^^«^ aflfairs. 
Constantinople, and the Turks, afraid of this, put down a new revolt 
which broke out in Bulgaria with terrible cruelty. This outrageous 
conduct was denounced by Mr. Gladstone with the utmost violence, 
and for a time the country was filled with indignation against Turkey! 
MeanwhHe, as had been expected, Russian troops crossed the 
Danube and invaded Turkey, and, in spite of a brave resistance 
from the Turks, seemed to be on the point of seizing „ 

/-^ . ,. 1 rn " xtusso-Turkisli 

Oonstantmople. To prevent this the Earl ef Bea- War. 
consfield (formerly Mr. Disraeli) despatched an English fleet to 
Constantinople, brought India sepoys to Malta, and made it clear 
that England would oppose the occupation of that city by the 
Russians. The matter was settled by the Berlin Treaty, by which 
the provinces which Turkey had oppressed were separated from 
her, but, to prevent their being too much under the power of 
Russia, were divided into two provinces, in one of which the 
governor was to be appointed by Turkey. 

Trouble next occurred in India. In 1876 the queen took the 
title of Empress of India, by which it is meant that she has the 
same position as was claimed before the mutiny by secon. Af.i.an 
the Orreat Mogul. Russia, checked at Constantinople, ^ar. 

began to press forward in Asia, and in 1878 sent an envoy to Cabul 
exactly as she had done in 1838. War followed, and the English 
forces took Cabul and Candahar, placed a new ameer on the throne 
and forced him to concede certain places along the frontier which 
made us much stronger than before. Unhappily, the envoy, Cavag- 
nari, who was sent to represent England at Cabul, was murdered 
m a popular outbreak, and we were agam obliged to invade the 
country and retake Cabul and Candahar. 

Meanwhile in Ireland, in spite of Mr. Gladstone's concessions, a 
demand had been springing up for an Irish Parliament, under the 
name of Home Rule, and a Land League had been 
formed on the model of the Catholic Association ^^IfTm 
of O'Connell, to secure further concessions to the Iceland, 
tenants. This promised very serious difficulty in the immediate 
future, and Lord Beaconsfield, when Parliament was dissolved in 

2 G 



450 Victoria. [isso- 

1880, pointed out the danger. However, Mr. Gladstone had raised 

General ^ great wave of indignation against the foreign and 

Election. domestic policy of Lord Beaconsfield in a series of 

Defeat of the eloquent speeches delivered by him in the course of 

Conservatives. ^ visit to Scotland, and he found himself returned 

to power by the large majority of 106 over the Conservatives. Some 

Irish members, however, who numbered sixty, kept aloof from either 

party, and declared themselves, under their leader, Mr. Parnell, the 

enemies of any English government. 

Mr. Gladstone accordingly became Prime Minister, with Mr. 

Forster Irish Secretary, Lord Granville Foreign Secretary, Lord 

Hartington Secretary of State for India, and Mr. 

second Chamberlain President of the Board of Trade. He 

ministry. began a further course of Irish legislation, passing, 

liand Act. in 1881, the Irish Land Act, by which rents in 

Ireland, instead of being settled, as elsewhere, by contract between 

landlord and tenant, were fixed for fifteen years in advance 

by a tribunal called a Land Court. At the same time he passed 

First Coercion ^ "^^^7 Severe Coercion Act, and imprisoned Mr. 

Act. ParneU and many of the Irish leaders for advising 

the tenants not to pay any rents at aU. After a time Mr. Parnell 

Second was released, upon which Mr. Forster resigned. The 

Coercion Act. ^^-^ Secretary, Lord Frederick Cavendish, was 

murdered immediately on his arrival, and another and severer 

Coercion Act was then passed. 

Abroad, Mr. Gladstone, after some unsuccessful fighting, restored 
practical independence to the Transvaal, a Dutch settlement in 
Interference in South Africa which had been annexed by Lord 
Egypt. Beaconsfield, and withdrew the English troops from 
Candahar. In 1882 he interfered in Egj^t, in which country France 
and England had for some time exercised a dual control, and 
suppressed a movement which had been set on foot by an officer 
named Arabi, with the object of securing influence for the army 
and native Egyptians. In this interference the forts of Alexandria, 
which were in Arabi's hands, were bombarded, and Arabi himself 
defeated by General Wolseley, at the battle of Tel-el-Kebir. While 
the English army was in Egypt an insurrection, headed by a reli- 
gious adventurer styled the Mahdi, broke out in the Soudan, a 



1886.3 Gladstone — Lord Salisbury — Gladstone. 451 

province on the Nile, which had long been in the possession of 
Egjrpt. On the defeat of an Egyptian army led by General 
an Enghshman, the English Government ordered the cjordon. 
Khedive to abandon the Soudan, and sent General Gordon to effect 
the peaceful withdrawal of its garrisons. The Mahdi, however 
besieged General Gordon at Khartoum, and the government sent 
out an expedition to rescue him, but delayed so long that Gordon 
was taken and killed before assistance arrived. New South Wales 
sent a contingent to assist England, which took part in the opera- 
tions, and Canadian boatmen were employed on the Nile. 

Meanwhile the Liberals, who had long advocated the extension 
of household suffrage to the counties, passed a bill through the 
Commons for that purpose. The bill, however, was Household 
rejected by the Lords, who thought that a plan ^^^nth^e^ 
for redistribution of seats ought to be submitted at counties, 
the same time. The rejection of the bill caused some agitation 
in the country; but after a time a conference was compromise 
agreed upon between the leaders of both parties, LibeSl^and 
and a joint scheme of redistribution was adopted, Conservatives, 
which continued the change begun in 1832, and also, by splitting up 
large constituencies into several divisions returning one member 
each, attempted to secure the rights of minorities. 

This bill was agreed upon, but before it had passed, the Gladstone 
administration was defeated on the Budget, and on Fail of the 
the resignation of Mr. Gladstone, Lord Salisburv came Gladstone 

"^ *' adminis- 

into power. In the General Election which followed tration. 
in the autumn of 1885, the Conservatives and „ ^°^<^ 

Salisbury' 

Liberals were nearly equally balanced in the English ministry, 
towns, but the Liberals secured a majority in Scotland, General 
Wales, and among the newly enfranchised coimty 
voters ; while Ireland returned a large majority of Home Rulers. 

The actual numbers of parties were, Liberals 332, Conservatives 
250, Home Rulers 86. When Parliament met, Lord Sahsbury's 
government was defeated on an amendment to the change of 
Address, and Mr. Gladstone became Prime Minister government, 
for the third time. It was soon announced that the Prime Minister 
had determined to adopt a Home Rule policy in Ireland, and in 
April, 1886, he brought forward two bills dealing with Ireland. 



453 Victoria. \iqqq- 

The first of these proposed to alter the Act of Union of 1800 by- 
enacting (a) that a Parhament should sit in Dublin for the consider- 
The Home ation of all Irish matters which were not reserved for 

Rule Bill. the Imperial Parliament at Westminster ; (6) that the 
Irish members and Irish peers should cease to sit in the Imperial 
Parliament except when the constitution of the Irish government 
was under revision ; (c) that the executive government of Ireland 
should be responsible to the Irish Parliament ; (d) that Ireland was 
still to be regarded as part of the United Kingdom, and should 
pay a contribution to imperial expenses ; (e) that the control over 
foreign affairs, the army and navy, and the regulation of the Irish 
customs duties should be reserved for the Imperial Parliament. 

The second bill was a Land Act, by which it was proposed that 
Tiie a sum of money should be advanced to Ireland with 

Land Act. >;5^hich to purchase for the tenants the estates of the 
Irish landlords at a valuation based upon the judicial rents fixed 
in accordance with the Land Act of 188L 

These proposals caused a division in the Liberal party, and Lord 

Hartington, who had refused to join Mr. Gladstone's government, 

Mr. Chamberlain, and Mr. George Trevelyan, both of 

the Home whom had resigned on the production of the bills, 

Rule Bill, joined ^itli j^j, Goschen and Mr. Bright in resisting 
Mr. Gladstone's scheme. The result was that the Home Rule Bill 
was rejected by 341 votes to 311. Mr. Gladstone at once advised 
the queen to dissolve Parliament, and appealed to the country 

General ^0 support his proposals. The result of the elections 
election. ^^g ^q gjye ]y[j.^ Gladstone 278 followers (including 
85 Irish Home Rulers), and to the Unionists 391 (318 Conservatives 
and 73 Liberal Unionists). Upon this Mr. Gladstone resigned, 
and Lord Salisbury again came into power, supported by the 
Conservatives and by the Liberal members of the Unionist party. 

The fiftieth year of the reign of Queen Victoria forms a very 
good place for the close of this little survey of the history of the 
English nation. We have seen the struggle for liberty 
carried on between the king and the feudal nobles, 
we have seen it continued by the sturdy country gentlemen of the 
seventeenth century, and carried in 1688 to a successful conclusion 
in the establishment of the British constitution. Since that date we 



1887.] Lord Salisbury. ^^^ 

have seen the gradual progress of the country, though retarded by 
the French Revolution, carried a step further by the admission in 
1832 of the middle classes to the vote; and stiU later, by the changes 
of 1867 and 1885, we have seen every householder, both in town 
and country, entrusted with a share in the government of his 
country. During the same period it has been our lot to relate the 
expansion of Britain from a little island on the coast of Europe into 
the centre of a world-wide empire, many of whose self-governing 
colonies are far larger than the whole empire was at a time when 
many thought that it had reached the highest pinnacle of 
glory, and whose largest dependency, India, is as large in area and 
population as the greater part of Europe itself. No other country 
in the world can look back upon such a long career of advancement 
in liberty, and at the same time of almost unbroken success as 
a conquering and colonizing people. Let us hope that the English 
of the future may not be unworthy of their ancestors— a hope 
which every boy and girl in the coimtry may do something to make 
good; and let it be truly said of us, as was untruly said of some 
of ^ the Eoman emperors, that we have successfully united two 
things — Empire and Liberty. 

CHIEF GENERAL EVENTS SINCE 1837. 
Penny Post introduced 



1839 

1846 

1849 

1851 

1854-1856 

3857 

1867 

1869 

1870 

1871 

Title of Empress of India assumed by the Queen .. 1876 

Third Reform Bill " ^gg^ 

Home Rule proposed by Mr. Gladstone 1886 



Corn laws abolished ... 
Navigation laws abolished 
Great Exhibition 

Russian War 

Indian Mutiny 

Second Reform Bill ... 
Irish Church disestablished 
Education Act passed ... 
University Tests abolished 



454 



Victoria, 



CHIEF WARS, BATTLES, SIEGES, AND TREATIES 
SINCE 1837. 



First Afghan War 1838-1842 

First China War 1841 

Scinde War. Battles of Meeanee and Hyderabad ... 1843 

First Sikh War 1845-1846 

Battles of Aliwal and Sobraon 1846 

Second Sikh War 1849 

Battles of Chillianwallah and Goojerat 

Russian War 1854-1856 

Battles of Alma, Balaclava, and Inkerman 1854 

Treaty of Paris 1856 

Second China War 1856-1860 

Treaty of Berlin 1878 

Second Afghan War 1878-1880 

Zulu War 1879 

Egyptian War 1882 

Soudan War 1884-1885 

Siege of Khartoum 1884-1886 



APPENDIX. 



THE DE LA POLES. 



William de la Pole, of Kingston-upon-Hull. 

Michael de la Pole, 

Earl of Suffolk, 

Minister of Kichard II., d. 1388. 

Michael, 

restored to his Earldom in 1399, 

d. at Harfleur, 1415. 



Michael, 3rd Earl, William, 

killed at Agincourt, 1415. Duke of Suffolk, 

Minister of Henry VI, , 
impeached and murdered 1450. 



John de la Pole, = Elizabeth, sister of 



Duke of Suffolk, 
d. 1491. 



Edward IV. 



John, Edmund, Richard, 

Earl of Lincoln, Duke of Suffolk, killed at Pavia, 

killed at Stoke, 1487. surrendered title of Duke 1525. 

for that of Earl, 1493, 
executed 1513. 



CO =^ 






c^i -M CO 
CM ^ ^ ^ 



'^ CQ C^OC^C^ 




INDEX 



Abbeville, 116 

Abercrombie, General, 386 

Abhorrers, 274 

Aboukir Bay, 385 

Abraham, Heights of, 349 j 

Acadie, 308 

Acre, 77, 385 

Addington, Prime Minister, 389, 390 (see 

Sidmouth) 
Addison, Joseph, 324 
Adelaide, 433 
Aden, 433 
Adrianople, 419 
Adullam, Cave of, 446 
"Advancement of Learning," 230 
Afghanistan, 434, 449 
Agincourt, 145, 146 
Agricola, Julius, 9, 10 
Aidan, St., 17 
Aids, 50, 83 
Aislabie, 326, 327 
Aix la Chapelle, 343 
Alabama, the, 444 
Albany, Duke of, 139, 140 
Albemarle, Duke of (see Monk), 267 
Alberoni, 322 

Albert, Prince, 429, 439, 445 
Albuera, battle of, 400 
Alcantara, 401 
Alen§on, Count of, 147 
Alexandra, Princess, 445 
Alexandria, 385 ; battle of, 386 
Alfred, King, 24-26 

, son of Ethelred II., 31, 32 

Alien Act, 380 

Aliwal, battle of, 435 

Alma, battle of the, 441 

Almanza, battle of, 308 

Almeida, 400 

Almenara, battle of, 308 

Alnwick, 50, 74 

Alsace, 448 

Althorp, Lord, 423, 427 

Ameer of Afghanistan, 435, 449 

Ameers of Scinde, 435 

American Settlements begun, 240 

Amiens, 387, 390 

Andre, Major, 365 

Angles, 12, 

Anglia, East, 13, 17, 19, 24, 25, 27, 31 

Anjou, 153 



Anjou, Francis, Duke of, 213 

, Geoffrey of, 57, 59, 61 

, Henry of (1), 61, 62 (see Henry II.) 

, Henry of (2), 213 

, Margaret of, 153, 157, 158, 159, 160, 

161, 162 

, Rene of, 153 

Anlaf, 30 

Anne of Denmark, 224 

Anne, Queen, 285, 287, 300, 301; reign 

304-314 ; character, 304 
Anselm, 51, 53, 55 
Anson, 338 

Anti-Corn Law League, 432, 433, 436 
Antwerp, 398, 399 
Aquitaine, 123 
Arabi, 450 
Archbishop, 21, 22 
Arcot, 346 
Ardriagh, 72 
Argyll, Duke of, 314, 322 

, Marquess of (1), 252, 256 

, Marquess of (2), 279 

" Areopagitica," 298 

Arkwright, 374 

Arlington, Lord, 268-271 

Armada, Spanish, 215-217 

Army, standing, 265, 276, 287, 290 

Arnold, Benedict, 365 

Arragon, Ferdinand of, 176, 177, 180 

, Katharine of, 177, 179, 183, 186, 

187 
Arran, Earl of, 210 
Arras, 151 
Arrow, lorcha, 442 
Arthur, King, 28 

, Prince, 177 " 

Articles, Six, 190, 196 

, Thirty-nine, 208 

Articuli Super Cartas, 98 
Arundel, 49 

, Archbishop, 130, 131, 138, 142, 143 

, Earl, 130 

Aryan, 4, 5, 7, 23 

Ascension, Island of, 407 

Ascough, IBishop, 154, 155 

Ashdown, 24 

Ashley, Antony, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, 

268—272 275 

. Lord, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, 426 

Aske, Eobert, 189 



Index, 



459 



Assandun, battle of, 30 
Assaye, battle of, 389 
Assize of arms, 75, 97 

of Clarendon, 72 

of Northampton, 72 

Athelstan, 27, 28 
Atherton Moor, battle of, 248 
Attainder defined, 157 
Atterbury, Bishop, 328 
Audley, Lord, 157 
Aughrim, battle of, 294 
Augustine, 15, 16 
Augustinian Canons, 187 
Aulus Plautius, 8 
Auniale, William of, 86 
Austerlitz, battle of, 392 
Australia, 408, 433, 439 
Austria, 231, 301, 302, 305, 313, 322, 338, 
345, 379, 382, 386, 391, 398, 402, 445 

, Charles of, 301, 304, 313 

Avalon, Hugh of, 78 
Avignon, 125 

Babington, 215 

Bacon, Sir F., Lord Verulam, 230, 232 

, Sir N., 212 

Badajoz, 400 
Bagnal, Sir H., 217 
Balaclava, battle of, 441 
Balliol, Edward, 112 

• , John, 101, 102 

Ballot Act, 448 

Bam borough, 49 

Banbury, 160, 247, 249 

Bank of England, 296, 383, 408, 413 

Bannockburn, battle of, 107 

Baptists, 259, 267 

Barbadoes, 407 

Barbarossa, Frederick, 75 

Barcelona, 308 

Barclay, Sir George, 299 

Barnet, battle of, 161 

Barons, 45, 46, 48, 49, 54, 61, 73, 82, 103 

Barrosa, battle of, 400 

Basque Roads, battle of, 348 

Basques, 5 

Bastille, 378 

Bastwick, 239, 242 

Bates, 227 

Battle, trial by, 72, 84, 131 

Bautzen, battle of, 402 

Bavaria, 305, 338, 445 

Bayeux, 153 

Baylen, 395 

Bayonne, 124, 395 

Baxter, R., 279 

Beachy Head, battle of, 293 

Beaconsfield, Earl of (see Disraeli), 449, 

450 
Beauge, battle of, 148 
Beaton, Cardinal, 192 
Beaufort, Cardinal Henry, 143, 144, 149, 

150, 152, 153 

, Edmund (1), 153, 155, 156, 157 

, Edmund (2), 161 



Beaufort, Jane, 150 

, John, 152 

Beauforts, 130, 141, 151 
Becket, Thomas, 67, 69, 70, 71 
Bedchamber Question, 433 
Bede, 18 
Bedford, 25, 27, 86 

, John, Duke of, 140 149-151 

Behar, 369 

Belgium, 403, 448, 

Belleme, Robert of, 54, 55 

Bellingham, 401 

Benares, Rajah of, 370, 372 

Benedictine Monks, 187 

Bengal, 369, 442 

Bentinck, Earl of Portland, 302 

, Lord George, 437 

Beresford, Marshal, 400 
Bergen-op-Zoom, 343, 402 
Berkeley Castle, 109 
Berlin decrees, 393 

, Treaty of, 449 

Bermudez, or Bermuda, 229, 430 
Bernicia, 13, 14 
Berwick, 107, 112, 241 

, Duke of, 308 

Bible, 126, 190, 225 

Bigod, Roger, 103 

Birinus, 17 

Birmingham, 411, 419, 423, 424 

Bishops, 21, 22 

, election of, 22, 55, 82, 185 

, Seven, 283 

Bismarck, 445 

Black Death, 119, 120 

Black Friday, 341 

Blackheath, battle of, 174 

Black Prince, 117, 120, 122, 123, 126 

Blackwater, battle of, 217 

Blake, Admiral, 257 

Blanchetaque, 116, 144 

Blanketeers, march of the, 410 

Blenheim, battle of, 305 

Blois, Stephen of, reign, 59-62 ; character 

of, 59 
Bloody Assize, 280 
Bloreheath, battle of, 157 
Blucher, Marshal, 403, 405 
Boadicea, 9 
Bocland, 22 
Bohemia, Anne of, 130 

, Elector of, 182 

, John, king of, 176 

Bohun, Humphrey, 103 
Bois-le-duc, battle of, 382 
Boleyn, Anne, 186, 187 
Bombay, 267, 346, 369, 408 
Bond, Oliver, 387 
Bonn, 305 

Bonner, Bishop, 204 
Booth, Sir G., 262 
Bordeaux, 124 
Borodino, battle of, 401 
Boroughbridge, battle of, 108 
Boroughs, rotten, 353, 422 



460 



Index. 



Boston, 360-362 
Bosworth, battle of, 167 
Both well Brigg, battle of, 273 

, Lord, 211 

Boulogne, 192, 198, 391 

Bourbon, house of, 223, 318 

Bouvines, battle of, 82 

Boyne, battle of, 293 

Braddock, General, 347 

Bramham Moor, battle of, 140 

Brandenbiirgh, Elector of, 182 

Brandon, Charles, 180 

Brandy wine, battle of, 362 

Brazil, 395 

Breakspear, Nicolas, 73 

Brest, 295, 348, 382, 391 

Breteuil, Roger of, 45 

Bretigny, Peace of, 122 

Breton, Cape, Isle of, 343, 348, 349 

Bright, Mr. J., 432, 436, 442, 443, 446, 447, 

452 
Brihuega, battle of, 308 
Brindley, 374 
Bristol. 109, 160, 248, 424 

, Earl of, 234 

British names, 14 

Britons, 13 

Brittany, Arthur of, 79, 80 

, Duchy of, 115, 149, 173 

•' Broad bottomed ministry," 337 
Brownists, 209 (see Independents) 
Brougham, Mr., created Lord, 418, 422, 

430 
Bruce, David, 110, 118, 122 

, Edward, 107 

, Robert, 101 

, Robert (younger), 104, 107, 111 

Brueys, Admiral, 385 

Brunanburh, battle of, 27 

Brussels, 307, 403 

Brydon, Dr., 435 

Brythons, 7, 8, 11, 14, 17 

Buckingham, Edward Stafford (1), Duke 

of, 163-166 

, Edward Stafford (2), Duke of, 183 

, George Villiers (1), Duke of, 230, 

232, 234-236 
, George Villiers (2), Duke of, 268, 

270, 271 
Buenos- Ayres, 394 
Bulgaria, 449 

Bunker's Hill, battle of, 361 
Buonaparte, Joseph, 395, 398 
Louis Napoleon, 437 ; Emperor, 439, 

441, 444, 448 
, Napoleon, 382, 384,385 ; first Consul, 

386; Emperor, 391-393, 395, 397, 399- 

405 
Burdett, Sir F., 411 
Burgos, 397, 402 
Burgovne, General, 362 
Burgundy. Charles, Duke of, 160, 161, 176 

, John, Duke of, 147, 148 

, Margaret, Duchess of, 160, 173 

, Mary of, 176 



Burgundy, Philip, Duke of, 174, 176, 179 
Burke, Edmund, 357, 361, 363, 365-370, 

372, 373, 380 
Burley, Simon, 129, 130 
Burmah, 434 
Burton, 239, 242 
Bury St. Edmund's, 153 
Bnsaco, battle of, 399 
Bute, Earl of, 353, 354 
Buxar, battle of, 369 
Bye Plot, 225 
Byland Abbey. 109 
Byng, Admiral (1), 322 
, Admiral (2), 347 

Cabal, 268-270 

Cabinet, the, 268, 272, 296, 327 (see 

Council) 
Cabot, John, 177 
Cabul, 434, 435, 449 
Cade, Jack, 154, 155 
Cadiz, 215, 217, 234, 391, 392, 400 
Caedmon, 18 
Caen, 115, 153 

Cffiisar, Julius, 6, 7, 8, 13, 344 
Cairo, 385 
Calabria, 394 

Calais, 118, 124, 145, 156, 162, 205 
Calcutta, 346, 347, 369 
Calder, Sir R., 391 
Calendar, 344 

Cambridge, Richard, Earl of, 144 
Cambridge University, 448 
Cambuskenneth, battle of, 104 
Camden, battle of, 365 

, Lord, 366 (see Pratt) 

Cameron, Dr., 342 

, of Lochiel, 339 

Campbell, Sir C, 443 

Camperdown, battle of, 382 

Camulodunum, 9 

Canada, 345, 349, 351, 353, 361, 362, 407, 

430, 451 
Candahar, 434, 435, 449 
Canning, George, 394, 399, 401, 415, 416, 

Prime Minister, 418 
Canterbury, 16 
Canute, 30, 31 
Cape Colony, 383, 403, 407, 433 

La HoKue, 295 

Capel, Lord. 255 

Caractacus, 9 

Carberry, battle of, -211 

Carlisle, 49 

Carmarthen, Marquis of (see Leeds), 291 

Carnarvon, 100 

, Earl of, 446 

Caroline of An^pach, 332, 336 

of Brunswick, 414 

Carr, Robert, 229, 230 
Carteret, Lord, 327-329, 337, 343 
Carthagena, 337 

, battle of, 348 

Carthaginians, 6 
Cartwright, 374 



Index. 



461 



Castile, Blanche, 84 

, Eleanor of, 104 

, Isabella of, 176 

, Joanna of, 176 

Castlebar, 388 

Castlereagh, Lord, 388, 394, 399, 401, 403, 

406,415 
Catesby, 226 
Catholic (see Roman Catholic) 

Association, 417, 418, 420 

Cato Street Plot, 413 
Cavagnari, 449 
Cavendish, Lord F., 450 

, Lord J., 365 

Cawnpore, 443 

Cecil, Robert, Earl of Salisbury, 217, 225, 
228 

, Robert, Marquess of Salisbury, 446 ; 

Prime Minister, 451, 452 

, William, Earl of Burleigh, 208, 212, 

214, 217 
Celts, 4, 11 

, Missionaries, 17 

Ceylon, 383, 403, 408 

Chalgrove Field, battle of, 248 

Chalon, 96 

Chamberlain, Mr., 450, 452 

Chambers, Alderman, 236, 239, 242 

Chancellor, 56, 87, 90, 326 

Chancery, Court of, 98, 259 

Chand(js clause, 425 

Charles L, 228 ; visits Madrid, 232 ; reign 
of, 233-254 ; character of, 233 

II., 246 ; in Scotland, 257 ; at Worces- 
ter, 257 ; reign of 264-277 ; character 
of, 264, 277 

the Great, 19, 31 

v.. Emperor, 176, 182, 183 

v., of France, 123 

VI., 141, 148, 150 

VIL, 150, 151 

X.,421 

Edward, 339-342 

, river, 349 

Charleston, 365 

Charlotte, Princess, 414 

Charter, Great, 83, 86 

, Henry I.'s, 53 

, people's, 431 

Charters, confiirmation of, 103 

Chartists, 431, 432, 433, 437, 438 

Chatillon, battle of, 156 

Chaucer, Geoffrey, 126 

Cherbourg, 154 

Cheshire, 44, 50, 131, 140 

Chester, battle of, 14, 16, 18 

Chesterfield, Earl of, 344, 354 

Chichester, Sir A., 228 

Chillian wallah, battle of, 435 

Chippenham, 25 

China, war with, 442 

Christianity, introduction of, 15, 16, 17 

Chronicle, Anglo-Saxon, 26 

Church of England, connection with 
Rome, 184, 185 ; Elizabeth's settle- 



ment of, 208 ; 243, 253, 259 ; at Restora- 
tion, 266 
Cintra Convention, 397 
Cistercian monks, 187 
Ciudad Rodrigo, 400 
Civil jury, 72 
Clare election, 419 
Clarence, George, Duke of, 160 162 

, Lionel, Duke of, 127, 128 

. Thomas, Duke of, 142, 148 

, William, Duke of, 414, 420 {see 

William IV.) 

Clarendon, Assize of, 72 

, Council of, 70 

, Earl of (1) (Edward Hyde), 264, 

267, 268 

, Earl of (2), 281 

, Earl of (3), 440 

Code, 267 

Claudius, Emperor, 9 

Claverhouse, John Graham of, Viscoun 
Dundee, 291 

Clement VIL, 183 

Clergy, exactions from, 50 ; trial of, 69, 
7o ; reluse to pay taxes, 103 ; unpopu- 
larity of, 125 ; reform of, 185 ; state of 
334, 335 

Clericis Laicos, Bill of, 103 

Cleves, Anne of, 190 

Clifford, Lord (1), 157 

, Lord (2), 158 

, Lord (3), 268-270 

Clinton, General, 362 

Clive, Robert, Lord, 346, 369 

Clugniac monks, 187 

Coalition against France, 1st, 382 ; 2nd, 
386 ; 3rd, 391 ; 4th, 402 

, against the ministry, 368, 390 

Cobbett, William, 411 

Cobden, Richard, 432, 436, 442, 444 

Cobham, Lord (Sir John Oldcastle), 143 

, Lord, 217, 225 

Coercion Act, 426, 450 

Coinage, debasement of, 191, 198; re- 
newal of, 68, 218, 297 

Coke, Edward, 230, 232 

Colborne, Sir J., 430 

Colchester, 9, 253 

Cologne, Archbishop of, 181 

Colonial Empire, begun, 229 ; state of, 
407 

Colonies, loss of American, 356-362, 365, 
368 

Columbus, 177 

Commonwealth, 255-263 

Compton, Bishop, 281, 284 

, Sir Spencer (Lord Wilmington), 

332, 337 

Comyn, the Red, 104 

Concord, 361 

Conservatives, numbers of, 427, 433, 451, 
452 (see Tories) 

Constable, 189 

, tlie, of France, 145 

Constaminople, 177, 178, 384, 416, 419, 449 



462 



Index, 



Control of Purse, 115, ] 28, 268 
Conventicle Act, 266, 267 
Convention Parliaments, 263, 264, 286 
Coote, Sir Eyre, 350, 370 
Cope, Sir J., 339, 340 
Copenhagen, battles of (1), 386, (2) 394 
Copyholders, 120, 151, 423 
Corblesdale, battle of, 256 
Corn-laws, 409, 416, 432, 433, 436, 437 
Cornish Rebellion, 174 
Cornwall, Richard, Earl of, 88, 90 
Cornwallis, Lord, 365, 388 
Corporation Act, 266, 267, 380, 416 

■ Municipal Act, 427 

Corriearrack, 340 

Corunna, battle of, 397 

Council, Ordinary, 56, 74 ; Great, 56, 91, 

144, 241 ; Privy, 175, 272 ; of the North, 

190 ; of State, 255 
Counties Palatine, 44 
Country party, 270, 329 
Courtenay, Edward, Marquis of Exeter, 

191 
Courts, Law, 56, 74, 83, 98, 175, 209, 448 ; 

High Commission, 209, 239, 243 ; Star 

Chamber, 175, 239, 243 
Coutance, Bishop of, 77 
Covenant, Scotch, 240, 249, 252 
Covenanters, 256, 273 
Coventry, 155, 157, 161, 212 
Craftsman, 329 

Cranbourne (see Lord Salisbury), 446 
Cranmer, Archbishop, 186, 196, 204 
Crecy, battle of, 116, lit 
Crevant, 150 
Crompton, 374 
Cromwell, Henry, 259, 262 
, Oliver, 241, 248, 251, 253, 256, 257 ; 

Protector, 258-262 

, Richard, 262 

, Thomas, 187, 190 

Cropredy Bridge, battle of, 249 

Crouchback, meaning of, 106 

Crusades, 51, 52, 75, 76, 77, 92 

Cuba, 354 

Culloden, battle of, 342 

Cumberland, William, Duke of, 338, 340- 

343, 348, 357 

, Duke of, 429 

Curia Regis, 56, 57, 74, 448 
Cuthbert, 18 
Cyprus, 77 

Dacre, Sir T., 154 

Dalhousie, Lord, 442 

Damme, battle of, 81 

Danby. Lord, 270-272, 279, 284, 289, 291 

(see Carmarthen and Leeds) 
Danegeld, 29 
Dane-law, 25, 26, 27 
Danes, 4, 23, 27 (see Northmen) 
Danton, 384 
Dare, Jeanne, 150, 151 
Darcy, 189 
Darien Scheme, 309, 310 



Darnley, Lord, 211 

Dartmouth, 161 

Dashwood, Sir Francis, 363 

David, King of Scots, 111, 112, 118, 122 

, of Wales, 100 

, St., 17 

Debates, publication of, 359, 360, 428 
De Breaute, Falkes, 86 

Burgh, Hubert, 85-87 

Deccan, 389 

Declaration of Eights (English), 286 ; 

(Irish) 367 
Deddington, 107 
De Grey, Bishop, 81 
De Heretico, Comburendo, 138 
Deira, 13, 14 
Delhi, 346, 389, 442, 443 
D'Enghien, Duke, 391 
Denmark, 386, 393, 394, 445 
Deorham, or Dyrham, battle of, 14 
Derby, Bolingbroke, Earl of, 127, 130, 131, 

132 (see Henry IV.) 
, Earl of (see Stanley) ; Prime 

Minister, 439 and 443 and 447 
Derbyshire Insurrection, 410 
Dermot, 73 

Derwentwater, Earl of, 321, 322 
Despenser, Hugh (father), 1U8, 109 

, Hugh (son), 108, 109 

Dettingen, battle of, 338 

De Vere, 129, 130 

Devonshire, Duke of, Prime Minister, 

347, 348 
Diderot, 377 

Digges, Sir Dudley, 234 
Directorate, 384, 386 
Directory (Service Book), 252 
Disraeli, Mr., 437, 439, 443, 446 ; Prime 

Minister, 447 and 448 (see Beaconsfield) 
Dominica, 354 
Dominican Friars, 188 
Domremy, 150 

Donauwerth, battle of, 305 * 

Doncaster, IGl 
Doomsday Book, 46 
Dorchester Heights, 362 
Dost Mahomed, 435 
Douay, 308 
Douro, river, 398 
Dover, 33, 37 ; Treaty of, 269 
Drake, Sir F., 214-216 
" Drapier's Letters," 328, 329 
Dresden, battle of, 402 
Drogheda, 256 
Druidlsm, 8 
Dudley, Edmund, 175, 179 

, Lord, 419 

, Lord Guildford, 200, 203 

, Lord Robert, 212 (see Leicester) 

Duke, title of, 119 

Dunbar, first battle of, 102 ; second battle 

of, 256 
Dunchurch, 226 
Dundalk, battle of, 107 
Dundas, Henry (Lord Melville), 891, 392 



Index. 



463 



Dundee, Viscount, 291, 292 
Dunes, battle of, 261 
Dunkirk, 261, 267 \ 
Dunning, 363 
Dunstable, 86 
Dunstan, 28, 29 
Dupplin, battle of, 112 
Duquesne, Fort, 345, 346, 348 
Durham, 44, 118 

, Lord, 430, 431 

Dutch, war with, 25?, 267, 270, 362, 382, 
394 

! 

Ealdorman, 21, 22, 28 

Ear], 28, 31, 43, 44 

East India Bill, Fox's, 370 ; Pitt's, 372 

East Retford, 419 

Ecclesiastical Commission (James II.' s), 

281, 285 

reform, 185, 186 

Economical reform, 363, 366 
Edgar, 28, 29 

Atheling, 35, 37, 42, 43 

Edgecote, battle of, 160 
Edgehill, battle of, 247, 248 
Edict of Nantes, 280 ', 

Edinburgh, 106, 192, 257, 340, 
Edington, battle of, 25, 154 
Edith, 33, 34 
Edmund, 28 

Ironside, 30, 31, 35 

Edred, 28 

Edric, Streona, 30, 31 

Education Grant, 426 ; Act, 447 

Edward the Elder, 26, 27 

the Confessor, 31, 32 ; reign of, 33- 

35 ; laws of, 54 
I., 91, 92 ; reign of, 96-104 ; character 

of, 96, 97 
11., 100, 103; reign of, 105-110; 

character of, 105 

III., 109 ; reign of, 111-126 

IV., 157, 158 ; reign of, 159-162 ; 

policy of, 162 

v., reign of, 163-165 

VI., 187 ; reign of, 194-200 

, son of Henry VI., 156, 158, 161 

, Black Prince, 117, 120-123, 126 

Edwin, King, 16, 23 

, Earl, 35, 36, 42, 43 

Edwy, 28, 29 

Egbert, 19, 23, 24 

Egfrith, 19 

Egremont, Lord, 355 

Egypt, 384-386, 450, 451 

Eikou Basilike, 255 

Elba, 403 

Elections, control over, 226, 227 

Eldon, Lord, 417, 418, 427 

Eliot, Sir John, 234, 235, 237 

Eliott, General, 364, 366 

Elizabeth, 186, 202-205 ; reign of, 207-219 ; 

policy of, 208, 209 
Ellandun, battle of, 19 
Elvas, 400 



Ely, 43, 92 

Emma, 30-32, 34 

Emmett, 388 

Empson, 175, 179 

England, geography of, 6 

English race, 4, 12 

Eric, 31 

Erin, 7 

Erse, 1 

Escuage (scutage), 68, 69, 83 

Essex, kingdom of, 14, 19, 20 ; shire, 27, 

31 
, Robert Devereux, Earl of, 217, 218, 

246, 248-251 
, Robert Devereux, Earl of (son of 

former), 230, 237 

, Arthur Capel, Earl of, 272 

Ethandun, battle of, 25 
Ethelbald of Mercia, 19 

of Wessex, 24 

Ethelbert of Kent, 16 

of Wessex, 24 

Ethelfleda, 26, 27 
Ethelred I., 24, 26 

II., 29, 30, 31, 32 

Ethelwald, 26 
Ethelwulf, 24 
Eugene, Prince, 305-307 
Eustace of Boulogne, 33 

, son of Stephen, 62 

Evesham, battle of, 92 

Exchequer Court, 56 

Excise, 265 ; scheme, 333, 334 

Exclusion Bill, 273, 274 

Exeter, 197 

Eylau, battle of, 395 

Factory Acts, 426 

Fairfax, Lord Ferdinand, 233, 248, 249 

, Sir Thomas, 248-251, 253, 256, 262 

Falaise, 74, 76 

Falkirk, first battle of, 104 ; second battle 

of, 341 
Falkland, Lord, 241, 244, 249 
Famine, English, 108 

, Irish, 436 

Farmer, 281 

Fastolf, Sir John, 150 

Fawkes, Guy, 226 

Favourite, meaning of, 105 

Felix, 17 

Felton, 236 

Fenians, 447 

Fenwick, Sir J., 300 

Ferdinand of Arragon, 176, 177, 180 

of Brunswick, 348 

of Styria, 231 

Ferrar, Bishop, 204 
Ferrol, battle oif, 391 
Ferry Bridge, battle of, 159 
Feudal dues, 50, 83, 227, 265 
Feudalism, 46, 376 
Feudal tenants, 46, 53, 68, 83 
Feversham, Lord, 279 
Field of Cloth of Gold, 182 



464 



Index. 



Fielden's Act, 425 

Finisterre Cape, 391 

Fins, 5 

Fire of London. 268 

Fisher, Bishop, 187 

Fitz-Gerald, Lord Edward, 387 

, Maurice, 73 

, Vesey, 419 

Fitz-Gilbert, Richard, 73 
Fitzherbert, Mrs., 373, 413 
Fitz-Osbert, W., 78 
Fitz-Peter, G., 78, 79, 82, 87 
Fitz-Stephen, Robert, 73 
Five Mile Act, 266, 267 
Flambard Ranulf, 50, 51, 53, 54 
Flanders, 82, 96, 103, 113, 114 
Flodden, battle of, 179, 180 

Flushing, 398 
Folkland, 22 
Fontenoy, battle of, 338 
Forest, 47 ; reclamation of, 237 
Forster, T., 321, 322 

, W. E., 447, 450 

Forty shilling freeholders, English, 151, 
423 ; Irish, 420, 425 

Fosseway, 9 

Fountains Abbey, 187 

Fox, Henry (Lord Holland), 343, 344, 
354 

, Charles James, 365, 367 ; joins 

North, 368, 371, 373, 374, 380, 390, 392, 
393 

France, treaties with, 122, 148, 162, 173, 
180, 182, 209, 237, 261, 269, 272, 300, 
313, 322, 343, 354, 368, 373, 387, 403, 
405, 441, 444 

, war begun with, 46, 81, 89, 101, 112, 

123, 143, 162, 179, 192, 205, 235, 294, 
304, 338, 345, 362, 381, 390, 403 

and Scotland, 102, 112, 118, 148, 179, 

192, 210, 311, 322, 339 

and Ireland, 382, 387, 388 

Francis L, 180, 182 

IL, 210 

, Sir Philip, 359, 372 

Franciscan Friars, 188 

Frederick, Prince of Wales, ''336, 344 

, Elector, 228, 231, 232 

the Great, 338, 345, 348, 354 

Free Church of Scotland, 435 

Fi-eemen, 83 

Friars, 188 

Friedl md, battle of, 395 

Frobisher, 214, 216 

Frost. Mr., 432 

Fuentes d'Onoro, battle of, 400 

Fulford, battle of, 36 

Fulton, 422 

Furness Abbey, 187 

Fyrd, 21, 26, 36, 74 

Gael, 7 

Ganges, 369, 390 
Gardiner, Bishop, 202, 204 
Garibaldi, 444 



Gascony, 89, 90, 112, 114, 119, 120, 156, 

402 
Gascoyne, General, 423 
Gaveston Piers, 105-107 
Gaunt, John of, 124-131 
General Warrant, 356 
Genoa, 386 
George L, reign, 320-330; character of, 320 

IL, 314, 329; reign, 332-350 

III., 344; reign of, 352-412; cha- 
racter of, 352 

IV,, 373; regent, 399, 410; reign, 

413-420 ; character, 420 

Georgia, 361 

Germans, 4 

Germany, 445, 448 

Ghent, 114, 407 

Ghuznee, 435 

Gibraltar, 306, 364, 366, 407 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 214 

Gildas, 12 

Giukel, 294 

Gladstone, W. E., 434, 436, 437, 440, 444, 

446; Prime Minister, 447, 448, 449; 

Prime Minister, 450 and 451, 452 
Glanville, 73, 77 
Glencoe, 292 

Glendower, Owen. 139, 140 
Glenshiel, 323 
Gloucester, city of, 161, 248 

, Gilbert, Earl of, 91, 92 

, Hadwisa of, 79, 80 

, Humphrey, Duke of, 149, 150, 152, 

153 

, Richard, Earl of, 90 

, Robert, Eail of, 60, 61 

, Thomas, Earl of, 127, 129 

Goderich, Lord, 418, 419 

Godwin, 31, 32, 33, 34 

Godolphin, Lord, 278, 290, 296, 301, 304 

Goidels, 7, 8, 11, 14, 17 

Good Hope, Cape of, 177, 383, 394, 407 

Goodwin, 226 

Gocjerat, battle of, 435 

Gordon, Lord G., 364 

, General, 451 

Goschen, Mr., 452 

Goths, 4 

Grafton, Duke of, trime Minister, 358, 359 

Graham, Sir James, 426, 434, 440 

, John, Viscount Dundee, 291, 292 

, Sir Thomas, 400, 401 

Grammont, Duke de, 338 
Graiiipound, 415 
Gianada, 354 
Grand jury, 71 

Remonstrance, 244 

Grant, General, 444 
Granville, Earl, 450 
Gr.isse, Count de, 366 
Gra'tan, 367 

Gravelines, battle of, 205 
Great Intercourse, 174 

Rebellion begun, 246 

Greece, 4, 416, 418 



Index. 



465 



Greene, General, 365 
Gregory the Great, 15 

Vil., Hildebrand, 45 

XIII., 344 

Grenville, George, Prime Minister, 354- 

357, 370 
, Lord, 390; Prime Minister, 392, 401, 

415 
Grey, Lady Jane, 180, 200-203 

Lady Katharine, 207, 219 

', Mr. (Earl) Grey, 381, 401; Prime 

Minister, 422, 423, 424, 426, 427 

, Lord, son of above, 436 

of Groby, Lord Ferrers, 160 

, Sir Eichard, 163-165 ^ 

Grossetete, 88 

Grouchy, General, 405 

Guadaloupe, 348 

Gualo, 85 

Gniana, 230, 407 

Guienne, 69, 101, 109; lost, 156 

, Eleanor of, 61, 67, 77, 79, 80 

Guildford, battle of, 365 
Guilds, 195 

Guinegaste, battle of, 179 
Guiscard, 311 
Guise, Mary of, 210 
Guises, 210 
Gunpowder Plot, 226 
Gutenberg, 178 
Guthrum, 24, 25 

Habeas Corpus Act, 273, 356, 381, 410 

Hadrian, Emperor, 10 

IV. (Nicolas Breakspear), 73 

Hainault, Jacqueline, 150 

, Philippa,. Ill, 118 

Hales, Sir E., 280 

Halidon Hill, battle of, 112 

Halifax, Charles Montague, Earl of Hali- 
fax, 296, 297, 300, 302 

, George Savile, Marquess of, 272, 278, 

280, 289, 291 

, Lord, 355 

Hamilton, Duke of, 253, 255 

Hampden, J., 240, 241, 245, 248 

Hampton Court, 253 

Conference, 225 

Hanover, 320, 323, 345, 429, 445 

Hanoverian troops, 338, 339, 343, 348 

Hardicanute, 31, 32 

Harding, S., 187 

Harfleur, 144 

Hargreaves, 374 

Harley, 309-314, 424 (see Oxford) 

Harold I., 31, 32 

II., 33-37, 47 

, Hardrada, 36 

Harris, General, 389 

Hartington, Marquess of, 450, 452 

Hastenbach, battle of, 348 

Hastings, battle of, 37 

, Lord, 164 

, Warren, 369, 370, 372 

Hatfield, battle of, 16 



Hatton, Sir C, 212 

Havannah, 354 
Havelock, General, 443 

Havre, 348 

Hawarden Castle, 100 

Hawkesbury, Lord, 389, 401 (see Liver- 
pool) 

Hawkins, Sir J., 214, 217 

Hawley, General, 341 

Hazelrig, 245 

Hedgeley Moor, battle of, 159 

Heligoland, 394, 407 

Hengist's Down, battle of, 24 

Henrietta Maria, 232, 234, 239, 245, 248 

Henry I., 48 ; reign of, 53-57 ; character 
of, 57 

IL, 61, 62; reign of, 67-75; cha- 
racter of, 67 

III., reign of, 85- 92 

IV., 127, 130-132 ; reign of, 138-142 

IV. (of France), 217, 224, 407 

v., 139, 142; reign of, .143-148; 

character of, 148 

VI., 148 ; reign of, 149-158 ; cha- 
racter of, 156 ; 159, 161, 162 

VIL, 165, 166; reign of, 172-178; 

character of, 172 

VIII., 177 ; reign of, 179-193 ; cha- 
racter of, 193 ; 194 

; Prince of Wales, 228 

Heptarchy, 14 

Herat, 435 

Herbert, Admiral, 284 (see Torrington) 

, Sidney, 440 

Hereford, Humphrey Bohun (1), Earl of, 
107, 108 

(Bolingbroke), Earl and Duke of, 

132 (see Henry IV.) 

, Humphrey Bohun (2), Earl of, 103 

, Milo, Earl of, 60 

, Roger of Breteuil, Earl of, 45 

Hereward, 43 

Hertford, 27 

, Earl of, 192, 194 (see Somerset) 

Herzegovina, 448 

Hessians, 338, 339, 343, 348 

Hetherington, 431 

Hexham, battle of, 159 

Hibernians, 7 

Hill, Abigail, 312 

, General (Lord), 400, 402 

, Rowland, 433 

" Histriomastlx," 239 

Hohenlinden, battle of, 386 

Holkar, 389 

Holland, 260, 269, 305, 322, 362, 382 (see 
Dutch) 

, Earl of, 255 

, Lord, 354 (see Fox, Henry) 

Hollis, 245 

Holmby House, 252, 253 

Holmes, Sir R., 267 

Holstein, 445 

Holy Alliance, 406 
I Home Rule, 449, 451, 452 

2h 



466 



Index. 



Hongkong, 442 

Hooper, Bishop, 294 

Hopton, Sir R., 248 

Hospitallers, Knights, 188 

Hotham, Sir J., 246 

Hough, 281 

Hougomont, 404 

Hounslow Heath, 281, 284 

Howard, J., Lord 164 ; Duke of Norfolk, 

166 

, Lady K., 190, 191 

, Lord, of Effingham, 216, 217 

Howe, Lord, 382 

, Sir W., 362 

Huguenot, 210, 235, 280 

Hull, 246, 248, 249 

Humble Petition and Advice, *261 

Hundred described, 20 

Hungarians, 5 

Hunt, Mr., 411 

Huscarls, 36 

Huskisson, Mr., 394, 417, 418, 419, 421, 

422, 436, 439 
Hyde, Anne, 277 
, Edward (see Clarendon), 241, 244, 

249 

Park Riots, 446 

Hyderabad, battle of, 435 
Hyder Ali, 370, 389 

Iden, 155 

Impeachment, 126, 231 

Impositions, 227 

Indemnity, Acts of, 264, 291, 333 

Independents, 209, 251, 252, 259, 266 

India, 177, 229, 269, 345 ; Clive in, 346, 
,347; 350, 369; Warren Hastings in, 
369-371 ; Lord Mornington in, 389 ; 
.434,:435 ; Mutiny in, 442, 443; 449 

■■' Act, Pitt's, 371, 372 

Bill,. Eox's, 370, 371 

^ — Civil Service, 372 

, Empress of, 449 

i Indulgences Declaration, first, 270 ; second, 
281 ; third, 283 

' Indus, river, 435 

Jnkerman, battle of, 441 

Innocent III.,, 81 

Interdict, 81 

Inverlochy, battle of, 252 

Ipswich, 180, 182 

Ireland, races of, 7, 72, 73, 217, 228, 259 ; 
conversion, of, 17 ; Norman settlement 
in, 72, 73, 107, 131, 173; Poynings' 
Act, 328, 367 ; conquest of, 217, 228 ; 
settlement in Ulster, 228 ; Wentworth 
in, 238, 244 ; Cromwell in, 256, 259 ; 
trade of, 268, 367, 373, 388; James 
II. in. 292-294 ; Drapier's letters, 328 ; 
declaration of right, 366, 367, 372 ; 
Grattan's Parliament, 387 ; Orangemen 
and United Irishmen, 387 ; French in- 
vasions of, 381, 388 ; rebellion in, 388 ; 
union with England, 388; Emmett's 
rebellion, 388; Daniel O'Connell in, 



417, 420 ; Repeal agitation, 427 ; Rebel- 
lion in, 438; Fenians in, 447 ; Mr. Glad- 
stone's legislation, 447, 450 ; Home Rule 
agitation, 449, 450, 451, 452 

Irish Church reformed, 426, 427; dis- 
established, 447 

Famine, 436 

Land Acts ('70) 447, ('81) 450 

Irishman, United, 438 

Irishmen, United, 388 

Ironsides, 251 

Isle of Wight, 253, 270 

Italy, 4, 176, 178, 183, 305, 384, 437, 444, 
445, 448 

Ivernians, 7, 8, 11, 17 

Jacobin Club, 379, 384, 389 

Jacobites, 321-323, 326, 339-342 

Jamaica, 261, 407, 408, 432 

James L, 211, 218, 219 ; reign of, 224-232 ; 

character of, 224 
II., 267, 269, 270, 273, 275, 276, 277 ; 

reign of, 278-287 ; character of, 278 ; 

293-295, 299, 303 

I. (Scotland), 141, 150 

IV. (Scotland), 177, 179, 180 

V. (Scotland), 192 

Jargeau, battle of, 151 

Jellalabad, 435 

Jena, battle of, 393 

Jenkins' ear, 336 

Jerusalem, 52, 75, 11 

Jervis, Sir .J., 382 

Jews, 76, 98, 99 

John, 73, 75, 76, 78; reign of, 79-84; 

character of, 79, 80 

of Gaunt, 124-131 

Jones, General, 256 
Joyce, Cornet, 253 
Judicature, High Court of, 448 
Jumiege, Robert of, 33, 34 
June 1, battle of, 382 
" Junius," letters of, 359 
Junot, Marshal, 397, 398 
Jury, Civil, 72 

, (iJrand, 71 ■ 

, Petty, 71 

Justices, Itinerant, 71, 83 

of the Peace, 9S 

Justiciar, 56, 87, 90, 326 
Justus, 16 
Jutes, 12, 13 

Kars, 441 

Katharine Grey, 207, 219 

Howard, 190, 191 

of Arragon, 177, 179, 183, 186, 187 

of France, 148, 165 

Parr, 191 

Kenilworth, 92, 107, 109 
Kennington Common, 438 
Kent, County of, 154, 159 

, Duke of, 414 

, Joan of, 128 



Index, 



467 



Kent, kingdom of, 12, 14, IS 

, Nun of, 189 

Ket, 197 

Keymis, 230, 231 

Khartoum, 451 

Khyber Pass, 435 

Killiecrankie, battle of, 292 

Kilmarnock, Lord, 343 

Kilsyth, battle of, 252 

Kimbolton, Lord, 245 (see Manchester) 

King, powers of, 21, 22 

King's friends, 355, 422 

Kirke, Colonel, 280 

Klosterseven, 348 

Knaresborough, 249 

Knighthood enforced, 97, 98 

, distraint of, 237, 243 

Knight service, 53, 68 
Knox, John, 210 
Konigsegg, Marshal. 338 
Kymry, 14 

Laeoukers, Statutes of, 120 

La Broye, 117 

Lake, General, 388, 389 

Lamb, Mr., 419 (see Melbourne) 

Lambert, General, 257, 262, 265 

Lancaster, Duke of (1), 119 

■ , Duke of (2) (see John of Gaunt) 

125-131 
— Duke 01 (3) (see Henry IV.), 132 

, Henry, Earl of, 101 

, Thomas, Earl of, 106, 107, 108 

Land Bank, 297 

League, 449 

Landen, battle of, 295 

Lanfranc, Archbishop, 42, 44, 45, 48, 50 

Langside, battle of, 211 

Langton, Archbishop, 81, 82, 84 

, Simon, 84 

Lapps, 5 

Laswaree, battle of, 389 
Lateran Council, 71 
Latimer, Bishop, 204 

, Lord, 126 

Laud, Archbishop, 236, 237, 239, 240, 242, 

251 
Lauderdale, Lord, 268, 270 
Lauffeld, battle of, 343 
Lawrence, Sir J., 443 
Learning, new, 178 
Leeds, Duke of (see Danby), 296 

(Kent), 108 

(Yorkshire), 159, 411, 423, 424 

Legislative Assembly (French), 379 
Leicester, 27, 166, 184 

, Earl of (see Montfort) 

, Robert Dudley, Earl of, 212, 214, 

217 
Leigh ton. Dr., 239 
Leipzig, battle of, 402 
Leith, 139, 192 
Leofric, 31, 33, 34, 35 
Leopold, Prince of Saxe-Coburg, 414 
Lewes, battle of, 91 



Lewes, Mise of, 91 

Lexington, battle of, 361 

Leyden, 229 

Libel Acts (Fox's), 381 

Liberals, or Whigs, 427, 433, 451, 452 

Licensing Act, 298 

Lichfield, 19 

Liege, 305 

Lignv, battle of, 404 

Lille" 307 

Limerick, 294 

Lincoln, 84, 85 

, Al)raham, 444 

, John de la Pole, Earl of, 166, 173 

Lindiswaras, 13 

Lisbon, 397, 398 

Lisle, Lord (Warwick and Northumber- 
land), 192 

Liverpool, Earl of, Prime Minister, 401, 
417, 418 

Llewelyn, 91, 99, 100 

Lochleven, 211 

Locke, J., 297 

Locke King, Mr., 438 

Lollards, 125, 130, 138, 143 

London, 9, 16, 27, 30, 37, 61, 78; for 
barons, 82; for Simon de Montfort, 91 ; 
128, 143, 155 ; for the Yorkists, 160 ; 161, 
195, 202 ; growth of, 229 ; 238 ; supports 
Long Parliament, 245 ; 246, 248, 249, 
253, 268, 269; supports Shaftesbury, 
■ 275; against James IL, 283; 335, 341,. 
360 ; supports the Pitts, 371 

London Bridge, battle of, 155 

Londonderry, 293 

Longchamp, William, 76, 77 

Long Island, battle of, 362 

Lord-Lieutenant, 245, 246 

Lords, House of, constitution and powers 
of (see Magnum Concilium, and Par- 
liament), 113, 126, 141, 156, 243 ; 
abolished, 255; Cromwell's, 261,, 31,0, 
312, 323, 388 

Lords Ordainers, 106 

Lorraine, 448 

Losecoat Field, battle of, 161 

Lostwithiel, battle of, 249 

Louis Vn, 61 

VIII. , 84 

IX., 90 

XL, 162 

XII., 180 

■ XIII. 223 

XIV.',' 264, 269-272, 280', 284, 2M- 

298, 300, 301, 303, 308, 322, 378 

XV., 322, 378 

XVL, 379 

XVII., 403 

XV1IL,403, 405 

Philippe, 318, 421, 437 

Louisbourg, 343, 348 

Louisiana, 345 

Louvain, Adela of, 53 

Lowe, Robert, 446, 447 

Lovat, Lord, 342 



468 



Index. 



Lovel, Lord, 173 

Lovett, 431 

Lowestoft, battle off, 267 

Lucknow, 442 

Lucy, R. de, 73 

Luddites, 408 

Ludlow, 157, 164, 192 

Luttrell, Colonel, 359 

Latzen, battle of, 402 

Luxembourg, Jacquetta of, 1 51 

Lyndhurst, Lord, 427, 434 

Lynn, 84 

Lyons, Council of, 88 

Macdoxald, Flora, 342 

Macdonalds, 292 

Machinery, 374, 417 

Mackay, General, 292 

Madras, 346, 369, 370, 407 

Madrid, 308, 396, 397, 401, 402 

Magenta, battle of, 444 

Magna Carta, Great Charter, 83, 8G, 91 

Magnum Concilium, Great Council, 56, 

91, 144, 241 
Magyars. 5 
Mahdi, 450 
Mahrattas, 389 
Maida, battle of, 394 
Maidstone, 253 
Main, Plot, 225 

, river, 338 

Maine, 46, 61, 80, 153 
Malcolm (1), 28 

(2), 31 

(3), 45, 49, 50, 53 

(4), 68 

Maldon, battle of, 29 
Malplaquet, battle of, 307 
Malta, 385-387, 390, 403, 407, 449 
Manchester, 10, 27, 410, 416, 419, 423, 

424 
Mandeville, William, 73 
Manilla, 354 
Manorial System (English), 119, 128, 197 ; 

(French), 376, 377 
Mantes, 46, 115 
Mar, Earl of, 321, 322 
March, Edmund, Earl of, 127 

, Edward, Earl of, 157 

, Roger, Earl of, 129 

Marche, Count de la, 80, 88 

Marengo, battle of, 386 

Margaret of Anjou, 153, 157, 158, 161, 162 

of Scotland, 101 

Tudor, 177, 180, 211 

Maria Theresa of Austria, 338, 345 

of France, 302 

Marie Antoinette, 399 

Marie Louise, 399 

Marlborough, Duchess of, 304, 311 

, Duke of (see Churchill), 294, 295, 

300, 304-311, 314, 321 
Marmont, Marshal, 401 
Marseilles, 5, 6 
Marshall, Richard, 88 



Marshall, William, Earl of Pembroke, 

85, 86 
Marsin, Marshal, 306 
Marston Moor, battle of, 250 
Martinique, 354 
Mary I. (England), 183, 199, 200 ; reign 

of, 201-206 
II. (England), 271-273, 286; reign 

of, 289-299 

of Modena, 283 

Queen of Scots, 192, 195, 196, 207, 

209-211,213,215 

Tudor, 180, 200 

Maserfield, battle of, 17 
Massachusetts, 240, 360, 361 
Massena, Marshal, 386, 399-402 
Massey, 280 
Matilda, Lady of the English, 57, 59-61 

, wife of Henry I., 53, 54, 57 

, wife of Stephen, 59, 61 

, wife of William the Conqueror, 

42 
Maupertuis, 120 
Maurice, Bishop, 53 
Mauritius, 396, 403, 407 
Maximilian, 176, 180, 181 
Mayence, 181 
Mayflower, 229, 240 
Maynooth Grant, 436 
Mayo, 388 
Meaux, 148 

Medellin, battle of, 398 
Melbourne, Lord, 419, 422 ; Prime 

Minister, 427, 430, 431, 432, 433, 434. 
Melville, Lord (Henry Dundas), 391, 392 
Merchants, forbidden to make grants, 124 
Mercia, kingdom of, 12, 14, 16, 17, 19,20; 

district of, 24-27, 30; earldom of, 31, 

34, 35, 43 
Merton, Walter de, 96 
Methodists, 334, 335 
Middleham, 157, 160 
Milford Haven, 166 
Militia, 21, 74, 75, 97, 98, 245, 347, 390 
Minden, battle of, 348 
Minorca, 308j 347, 348, 365, 367, 407 
Mirabeau, Count, 379 
Mirabel, 80 
Mise of Amiens, 90 

of Lewes, 91 

Mississippi, river, 345 
Modena, Mary of, 283 
Mogul, 346, 369, 390, 442, 449 
Moleyns, Bishop, 154, 155 

, Lord, 154 

Moltke, Count, 445 

Mompesson, Sir G., 232 

Monasteries, 29, 58, 187, 188 

Mondego Bay, 396 

Monk, General (Albemarle), 259, 262, 267 

Monmouth, Duke of, 274-276, 279 

Monopolies, 218, 238 

Mons, 307, 308 

Graupius, 9 

Montagu, Marquess of, 161 



Index. 



469 



Montague, Charles, Earl of Halifax. 296, 

297, 300, 303 
Montcalin, Count, 349, 350 
Monte Bello, battle of, 444 

Video, 394, 396 

Montereau-sur-Yonne, 148 

Montfort, Simon de, 89-92 

Montgomery, Roger of, 49, 54 

Montmorency, 349 

Montrose, Marquess of, 252, 256 

Moore, Sir J., 397 

Moot, Shire, 21, 56, 71 

Morcar, 34-36, 42, 43 

Mordaunt (Earl of Peterborough), 308 

More, Sir Thomas, 184, 187 

Moreau, General, 386, 392 

Mornington, Lord, 389 (see Wellesley) 

Mortimer, Edmund, Earl of March (1), 

127 

, Edmund (2), 139 

, Edmund (3), 145 

, Edward, Earl of March, 157, 158 

(Edward IV.) 

, Roger E., of March, 129, 131 

, Roger, Lord, 108, 109, 111 

Mortimer's Cross, battle of, 158 

Mortmain, Statutes of, 97 

Morton, Cardinal, 165, 166, 175 

Morton's Fork, 175 

Moscow, 401 

Mountjoy, 228 

Mousehold Hill, battle of, 197 

, Robert, 49 

Mowbray, Thomas, Earl of Nottingham 

(father), 130, 131 (see Norfolk) 
, Thomas, Earl of Nottingham (son), 

140 
Muir, 380 
Musselburgh, 195 
Mutiny Act, 290, 298 

, Indian, 442, 443 

of the Fleet, 381, 382 

Mysore, 370, 389 

Najara, battle of, 123 

Namur, 296, 307 

Nantwich, battle of, 249 

Naples, 444 

Naseby, battle of, 251 

Navarino, battle of, 418 

Navarre, Berengaria of, 77 

National Assembly (French), 378, 379 

Debt, 296, 325, 326, 344, 373, 383 

Nationality, idea of, 407 

Navigation Acts, 257, 268, 417, 439 

Nectan's Mere, battle of, 19 

Nelson, Lord, 382, 385-387, 391, 392 

Nepaul, 434 

Nesbit Moor, battle of, 139 

Netherlands, trade with, 96, 113, 173, 

174, 176 ; revolt of, 210 
Neville, Archbishop (1), 118 

, Archbishop (2), 129, 130 

, Lord, 126 

NeviU's Cross, 118 



Newark, 84, 225, 252 

New Brunswick, 407 

Newburn, battle of, 241 

Newbury, 1st battle of, 249; 2nd battle 

of, 251 
Newcastle, 50, 252 
, Pelham, Duke of (1), 328, 337; 

Prime Minister, 344, 347, 348, 353, 354 

, Pelham, Duke of (2), 440 

, William Cavendish, Earl of, 248-250 

New College, 182 
Newfoundland, 214, 313, 407 
Newmarket, 253, 276 
New Orleans, 407 
New Plymouth, 229 
Newport, in Isle of Wight, 254 

, in Wales, 431 

New Salem, 360 

New South Wales, 408, 451 

Newton, Sir Isaac, 297 

Newtown Butler, battle of, 293 

New York, 260, 267, 361, 362, 365 

New Zealand, 433 

Ney, Marshal, 397 

Nicolas, Czar, 440 

Nile, battle of, 385, 392 

Nithing, 49 

Noailles, Marshal, 338 

Nobles (see Barons), 53, 175 

Nonconformists, 209 ; under Charles II., 

266, 267, 269, 270, 274 ; under James 

II., 281, 282; 290; under Anne, 312, 

314 ; under George I. and II., 324, 333, 

335 ; 419, 448 
Nonjurors, 290 
Nootka Sound, 380 
Nore, Mutiny at, 382 
Norfolk, 14, 201 

, Hugh Bigod, Earl of, 74 

, John Howard, Duke of, 166 (Lord 

Howard) 

, Ralf Guader, Earl of, 45 

, Roger Bigod, Earl of, 103 

, Thomas Howard, Duke of (1) (Earl 

of Surrey), 179 

. Thomas Howard, Duke of (2), 193 

, Thomas Howard, Duke of (3), 212, 

213 

, Thomas Mowbray, Duke of, 131 

Normandy, 26, 33, 35, 42, 55, 61; lost, 

80; 147, 153 

, Emma of, 30, 31 

, Robert of, 45, 48, 52-55 

Norris, Sir J., 217 

North, Lord, 358; Prime Minister, 359, 

360, 363, 365, 3(18, 369, 371 

, Revolt of the, 212 

North America, 177, 214, 345 
Northampton, Assize of, 72 

, battle of, 157 

, Treaty of. Ill 

North Briton, 355 

Northmen, 2.{-26, 28, 29 (see Danes) 

Northumberland, Duke of, 199-202 (see 

Lisle and Warwick) 

2h3 



470 



Index. 



Northumberland, Henry, Earl of (1), 139, 

140 

, Henry, Earl of (2), 157, 158 

, Henry, Earl of (3), 164, 165 

, Percy, Earl of, 118 

Northumbria, kingdom of, 12, 14, 16-19, 

24, 26, 27 ; earldom of, 31, 34, 35, 43 
North-West Passage, 214 
Norway, 29-31, 100, 216, 323 

, Maid of, 101 

Norwich, 197 
Nottingham, 27, 247, 424 

, Earl of, 290, 305, 309, 312 

Nova Scotia, 308, 313, 407 
Noy, 238, 340, 239 
Nun of Kent, 189 

Gates, Titus, 273, 279 

O'Brien, Smith, 438 

Occasional Conformity, 312, 324 

O'Connell, Daniel, 417, 419, 437, 438 

O'Connor, A., 387 

, Feargus, 431 

Odo of Bayeux, 42, 44, 49 

Offa, 19, 23 

Oldcastle, Sir J., 143 

O'Neal, Earl of Tyrone, 217 

Oporto, battle of, 398 

Orange, William, Prince of, 272-274, 281- 

286 (see William III.) 
Orangemen, 387 
Ordeal, 21, 71, 84 
Orders in Council, 393, 407 
Orford, Lord (1) (see Russell, Edward) 

, (2) (see Walpole) 

Orissa, 369 
Orleans, 150, 151 

, Duke of, 147, 152 

Orleton, Bishop, 109 
Ormond, Duke of (1), 256 

, Duke of (2), 311, 312, 314, 321 

Orsini, 443 

Orthez, battle of, 403 

Orwell, 109 

Osborne (see Danby and Leeds), 270 

Ostmen, 72 

Oswald, 17 

Otho, Legate, 88 

Otterburn, battle of, 139 

Otto, Emperor, 82 

Ottoman Turks, 5, 177 

Ottomond, mound of, 306 

Oude, 369, 442 

, Nabob of, S'Sg, 370 

.Princesses of, 370 

Oudenarde, 307 

Oxford, 61, 90, 248, 249, 251, 275 

, Earl of (1), 129, 130 

, Earl of (2), 166, 175' 

, Earl of, 312-314, 320 (Harley) 

, Provisions of, 90 

University, 448 

Patne, 380 

I'ains and Penalties, Bill of, 414 



Palatinate, 182, 228, 231 

Palmer, 381 

Palmerston, Lord, 399, 418, 419, 423, 427, 
436, 437, 439, 440 ; Prime Minister, 
441, 442, 443, 444, 446 

Pampeluna, 402 

Pandulf, 86 

Papal power, origin of, 15, 16, 18 ; regu- 
lated, 45, 81 ; exactions, 86, 88, 103, 
124, 130 ; defined, 184 ; abolished, 185 ; 
revived, 203 ; end of in England, 208 

Paper Duty, 444 

Paris, 16, 115, 122, 149, 402, 403 

, Treaties of, 354, 403, 405, 441 

Parker, Matthew, Archbishop, 208, 212 

, Bishop, 281 

Parliament, Powers and Constitution of 
(see Witenagemot and Magnum Con- 
cilium), 89, 91 ; Model, 102, 108 ; two 
houses of, 113; 124, 128, 141, 151, 184, 
226, 227, 235, 286, 301, 353, 366, 388, 
425, 446, 451 ; Parliamentary Reform, 
363, 364, 372, 410, 416, 422, 423, 446, 
451 

Parliaments (special), the Mad, 90; de 
Montfort's, 91; the Model, 102; the 
Good, 106 ; the Merciless, 130 ; the 
Shrewsbury, 131 ; the Short, 241 ; the 
Long, 241, 263 ; the Rump, 253, 258, 
262 ; Barebones, 258 ; first Convention, 
263 ; Oxford, 275 ; second Convention, 
286 

Parma, Duke of, 215 

Parnell, C. S., 450 

Parr, Katharine, 191, 196 

Partition Treaties, 301, 302 

Passaro, Cape, battle off, 323 

Paston, John, 154 

Patay, battle of, 151 

Patrick, St., 17 

Paullinus, 16 

Pavia, battle of, 182 

Peasant revolt, 128 

Pecquigny, Treaty of, 1 62 

Pedro the Cruel, 122, 123 

Peel, Sir Robert, 399, 413, 415, 418-420, 
426 ; Prime Minister, 427, 431-438 

Peelites, 440, 442 

Peerage Bill, 323 

, Irish, 388 

, Scottish, 310 

Peers, creation of, 312, 424 

Peisbwah, 389 

Pelham, Henry, 328, 337 ; Prime Minister, 
337, 343, 344 

(see Newcastle) 

Peltier, 390 

Pembroke, 253 

, Herbert, Earl of, 160 

, Jasper Tudor, 158 

, William Marshall, Earl of, 79, 85, 8fl 

Penda, 16, 17, 19 

Penn, 260 

Penruddock, 260 

Penryn, 419 



Index, 



471 



Perceval, 394 ; Prime Minister, 399, 401 
Percy, Earl of Northumberland (1), 118 

, Earl of Northumberland (2), 157 

, Henry, Earl of Northumberland, 

139, 140 

, Henry (Hotspnr), 140 

, Thomas, Earl of Worcester, 139 

Ferrers, Alice, 126 

Peter des Eoches, 82, 85-88 

, St., 18 

the Hermit, 51 

Petition and advice, 261 

of Right, 235 

Petitioners, 274 
Petre, 281, 285 
Petty jury, 71 
Philadelphia, 361, 362, 365 
Philip Augustus of France, 75 

of Burgundy (I), 148-151 

of Burgundy (2), 174, 1 76 ^ 

IV., of France, 101 

. VI., 112, 114-117 

■ II., Spain, 202, 203, [205, 207, 208, 

210, 213-215,217 
of France, King; of Spain, 302, 303, 

313, 322 

of Orleans, 322 

Philiphaiigh, battle of, 252 

Philipot, 128 

Picts, 11, 12 

Pilgrimage of Grace, 189 

Pinkie, battle of, 195 

Pitt, William (father), 342-344, 347, 348, 

350, 354, 358 (see Chatham) 
, William (son), 366, 368 ; Prime 

Minister, 371, 373 ; Reform Scheme of, 

373 ; commercial policy of, 373 ; 374, 

380, 381, 383 ; Irish policy, 388, 389 ; 

Prime Minister, 390, 392; 415, 417, 430, 

436, 444 
Pittsburg, 348 
Pius v., 212 
Plague, Great, 268 
Plantagenet, Edward, 173, 174 
Plassey, battle of, 347, 369, 442 
Poissy, 115 

Poitevins, 82, 86, 88, 89 
Poitiers, battle of, 120, 121 
Poitou, 61, 82, 89 
Pole, Edmund de la. Earl of Suffolk, 174, 

179 

, Henry, Lord Montacute, 191 

, John de la, Earl of Lincoln. 166, 173 

, Michael de la. Earl of Suffolk, 130, 

131 

, Reginald, 191, 203, 204, 206, 

, William de la, Duke of Suffolk, 153, 

154 
Poll-tax, 128 
Pondicherry, 346, 354 
Pontefract, 250 

Poor laws, 218, 219, 277, 382, 426 
Pope, 15, 18, 35, 45, 52, 70, 81 ; exactions 

of, 86, 88, 103 ; a peacemaker, 120 ; 

124, 172, 182-185, 212, 444, 448 



Popish Plot, 273 

Porteous Riots, 334 

Portland, Duke of. Prime Minister, 367. 

368, 391, 394, 400 
Porto Bello, 337 

Novo, 370 

Portugal, 268, 279, 354, 395, 397, 398, 416 
Poundage, 227, 234-236, 242, 246 
Poynings' Act, 174. 328 367 
Praemunire, Statute of, 124, 130, 152, 

183. 184 
Pratt (Camden), 356, 366 
Prayer-book, 196, 199, 208, 252,; pro- 

sciibed, 259, 266 

, Scottish, 240 

Pre-emption, 84, 265 
Premonstratensian canons, 187 
Presbyterians, 209, 225, 251, 253, 258, 

259, 266 (see Nonconformists) 
Press, freedom of, 298 
Preston, battle of, first, 253; second, 

322 

Pans, battle of, 340 

, Viscount, 299 

Pretender (old), 283, 285, 303, 311, 321, 

327, 328, 339 

(young), 327, 339, 340-342 

Pride, Colonel, 253 

Priestley, Dr.. 380 

Prime Minister, title of. 326, 327 

Private grants forbidden, 124 

Privy Council (see Ordinary Council), 

175, 272 
Protestantism, 190, 193, 195, 204, 208 
Protestants (French), 210, 234, 280 

(German), 231 

Provencals, 88 
Provence, Eleanor of, 88 
Provisions of Oxford. 90 

, Provisors, 87, 124, 130, 184 

Prussia, 345, 379, 393, 445 

, Frederick of, 3U, 354, 356 

, William of, 407, 445, 448 

Prynne, 239, 242 

Publication of debates, 359, 428 

Pulteney, William, 323, 327, 329, 330, 

334, 335, 337 
Punjab, 408, 435, 443 
Purchase in the army abolished, 448 
Puritans, 209, 2)2, 217, 218, 225, 226, 

243 (see Nonconformists) 
Purse, control over the, 115, 128, 147, 

162, 227, 235, 268, 286, 290 
Purveyance, 83, 84, 265 
Pym, 232, 235, 241, 242, 244, 245, 249 
Pyrenees, 303, 396 

, battle of, 402 

Pytheas, 5, 6 

QuADEUPLE Alliance, 322 
Quatre Bras, battle of, 404 
Quebec, 349, 350 

Radcot Bridge, battle of, 130 
Radicals, 431 



472 



Index. 



Raglan, Lord, 441 

Railways opened, 421 

Raleigh, Sir W., 213, 214, 225, 228, 230, 

231 
Ralf Guader, 42, 45 
Ramillies, battle of, 306, 30t 
Ratcliff, Charles, 342 

, Earl of Derwentwater, 321, 322 

Eathmines, battle of, 256 

Ravenspur, 131, 161 

Rawdon, Lord, 365 

Reeve (shire, borough, and town"), 20, 21 

Reform Bills (English), 423, 446, 451 ; 

(Scotch), 425, 446, 451 ; (Irish), 425, 

446, 451 
Regency, 149, 373, 399 
Regent (George IV.), 399-412 
Reginald, 80 
Regnier, General, 394 
Regulating Act (Indian), 369 
Reign of Terror, 385 
Eelief, defined, 50, 53 (see Feudal dues) 
Renard, 202 

Repeal of the Union, 420, 437 
Retainers explained, 141, 155, 166, 174, 

175 
Revenue, King's (see Feudal dues), 227, 

265, 290, 366 

officers, 366 

Revolution (English), 287 

(French), 376-379, 384 

Rhe, Isle of, 235 
Rheims, 151 
Rich, Edmund, 88 

Richard I., 73, 75 ; reign of, 76-78 ; cha- 
racter of, 78 

II., 126 ; reign of, 127-132, 138 

IIL, 161, 164; reign of, 165-167; 

character of, 167 

, King of the Romans, 90 

Richelieu, Cardinal, 234 
Richmond, Duke of, 362, 363 

, Henry of, 165, 166 (see Henry VII.) 

Ridley, Bishop, 204 

Ridolphi, 213 

Riot Act explained, 320 

Ripon, 108 

Rivers, Anthony, Lord Woodville (son), 

163, 164 
, Richard Woodville, Earl (father), 

1650 
Rizzio, 211 
Robert, Duke of Normandy, 45, 48, 49, 

52-55 

III. of Scotland, 140 

of Belleme, 42, 45 

of Jumieges, 33, 34, 35 

Robespierre, 383 

Rochet'ort, 405 

Rochelle, 123, 234, 235 

Roches, Peter des, 82, 85, 86, 87, 88 

Rochester, 16, 49, 286 

, Lord, 278, 281, 300 

Rockingham, Marquis of, 355 ; Prime 

Minister, 357, 358, 363, 365-367 



Rodney, Lord, 348, 364, 366 

Roebuck, Mr., 441 

Rogers, 204 

Rollo, 26 

Roman Catholics, under Elizabeth, 208 
209, 212, 213, 217 ; under James I., 
225, 226, 232; under Charles II., 269, 
270, 273; under James II., 280-283 
287, 291; disabilities of, 364, 389, 394, 
416, 417, 419; removed, 420, 448 

Roman towns, 9 

Romanized Britons, 2 

Romans, 4-6, 8-12 

Rome, 15, 31, 183, 445, 448 

Rooke, Sir George, 306 

Root and Branch Bill, 243 

Roriga, battle of, 396 

Roses, wars of, begin, 156 

Rouen, 115, 147, 151, 153 

Roundaway Down, battle of, 248 

Rousseau, 377 

Rowton Heath, battle of, 252 

Roxburgh, 107 

Royalists, 246 

Royal Marriage Act, 373, 374, 414 

Rumbold, 276 

Rump Parliament, 253 ; expelled 258 ; 
restored, 262 

Runnymede, 82 

Rupert, Prince, 247-250, 267 

Russell, Edward, 284, 294, 295, 300, 302 

, Lord, 197 

, Lord John (Earl), 411, 419, 422- 

424, 427, 436; Prime Minister, 437- 
440, 445 

, William, Lord, 272, 276 

Russia, 345, 386, 391, 401, 406, 416, 418, 
434 ; war with, 440, 448, 449 

Ryswick, 296, 301 

Sacheverell, Dr., 311 

St. Alban's, battle of, first, 156 ; second, 

158 
St. Eustatia, Island of, 365 
St. Gothard, Pass of, 386 
St. Helena, Island of, 271, 405, 407 
St. John, Henry (Bolingbroke), 309, 311, 

313, 314, 321, 328-330, 344 
St. John, Knights of, 188, 385, 387 
St. Lawrence, river, 345, 349 
St. Mary's Clyst, battle of, 197 
St. Peter's Field, 411 
St. Pol, Count of, 151 
St. Quentin, battle of, 206 
St. Sebastian, 397, 402 
St. Vincent, battle of, first, 364; second, 

382 
— , Island of, 354 
Saintes, battle of, 89 
Saladin, 75, 77 

Tithe, 75 

Salic Law, 112, 429 
Salisbury, 46, 167, 285 

Countess of, 191 

Craggs, 256 



Index. 



473 



Salisbury, Richard, Earl of (1), 150 

Richard, Earl of (2), 155-158 

Robert, Earl of, 217, 225, 228 

Robert, Marquess of, 446 ; Prime 

Minister, 451, 452 

Roger, Bishop of, 56, 59, 60 

WilUam, Earl of, 82 

Sancroft, Archbishop, 283 
Handwich, battle off, 84, 85 
Saragossa, battle of, 308 
Saratoga, 362 
Sardinia, 313, 444 

Savile, George, Marquess of Halifax, 2Tl, 
278, 280, 289, 291 

, Sir George, 364 

Savoy. 305, 313 

, Boniface of, Archbishop, 88 

Savoy, Duke of, 261 

, Peter of, 88 

Sawtre, W., 138 

Saxe, Marshal, 338 

Sax:e-Coburg, Albert of, 429, 439, 445 

, Leopold of, 414 

Saxons, 12, 13 
Saxony, 445 

, Elector of, 182 

Say, Lord, 155 
Scandinavia, 22, 45 
Scarborough, 107, 108 
Schism Act, 314, 324 
Schleswig, 445, 448 
Schomberg, Marshal, 293 
Scinde, 435 
Scindia, 389 

Scotland, geography of, 339 ; races of, 7, 
13 ; connection with England, 27, 28 ; 
homage done by kings of, 31, 45, 49, 
68, 81, 84, 100, 101; kings of, captured, 
74, 118; invaded by English, 45, 102, 
104, 106, 107, 112, 139, 164, 256 ; suc- 
cession, questions of, 100, 109 ; allies 
with France, 102, 112, 118, 148, 180, 
192, 195; Reformation in, 210; Elizabeth 
and, 210, 211 ; Charles I. and, 240, 241 ; 
revolution in, 291 ; union with, 227 ; 
309, 310, 435 
Scots invade England, 60, 74, 108, 118, 
148, 179, 241 ; join the Parliament, 240 
Scrope, Archbishop, 140 

, Lord, 145 

Scutage, 68, 69, 75, 83 
Sebastopol, 441 
Sedan, battle of, 448 
Sedgemoor, battle of, 279 
Seditious Meetings Act, 380 
Seine, river, 114, 115 
Selby, battle of, 249 
Selden, John, 232, 241, 242 
Self-denying Ordinance, 252 
Senlac, battle of (Hastings), 37 
Separatists, 209, 229, 246 
Sepoys, 346, 347, 350, 442, 449 
Septennial Act, 323 
Seringapatam, 389 
Servia, 449 



Settlement, Act of, 301 

(Irish), 268 

Sevenoaks, battle of, 155 
Seven Years' War begins, 345 
Severn, river, 166 
Seville, Peace of, 333 
Seymour, Lady J., 187 

, Lord, 194, 195 

Shaftesbury (Antony Ashley Cooper), 

first Earl, 268-275 

XLord Ashley), seventh Earl, 426 

Sharp, Archbishop, 273 

Sheffield, 423, 424 

Shelburne, Lord, 365; Prime Minister, 

367, 368 
Sheridan, T. B., 365, 372 
Sheriff, 21, 71, 80, 90, 234 
Sheriffmuir, battle of, 322 
Ship-money, 239-241, 243 
Shiremoot, 21, 56, 57, 71, 83, 91 
Shirley, 227 
Shovel, Sir C, 306 
Shrewsbury, 19, 139, 247 

, battle of, 139 

, Charles Talbot, Earl, then Duke of, 

290, 294, 300, 314 

, John Talbot, Earl of, 152, 156 

Sicily, 77, 88, 323, 444 

Sidmouth, Lord (Addington), 389-391, 

401. 410, 415, 416 
Sidney, Algernon, 276, 299 

, Henry, 284 

, Sir Philip, 215 

Simnel, Lambert, 173 

Siward, 33, 34 

Six Acts, 410 

Slave-trade, 214, 313, 323, 373 ; forbidden, 

393 
Slavery, abolition of, 425, 432 
Slavs, 4 

Sluys, battle of, 114 
Smith, Adam, 372 

, Sir Sidney, 385, 386 

Sm3n'na Company, 229 

Solemn League and Covenant, 240, 249, 252 

Solferino, battle of, 444 

Solway Moss, battle of, 192 

Somers, Lord, 298, 300, 302, 303, 310 

Somerset, Duke of, 314 

, Duke of, Edmund (1), 153, 154, 

156 

, Duke of, Edmund (2), 161 

, Duke of, John, 152 

, Seymour, Duke of, 192, 194-199 

Somme, river, 115, 145, 162 

Sophia of Hanover, 301, 313, 314 

Soudan, 451 

Soult, Marshal, 397, 398, 402 

South Sea Scheme, 324, 325 

Southwold Bay, battle of, 270 

Spa Field Riots, 410 

Spain, 122, 176, 205 (see Philip IL); 

Spanish match, 227, 228, 231, 232, 260 ; 

Spanish succession, 301, 313, 336, 354, 

362. 380. 396 



474 



Index. 



Spanish colonies, 213, 260, 313, 325, 336, 

354, 415 
Spencer, Charles JEarl of Sunderland, 

son), 309, 326, 327 
, R. (Earl of Sunderland, father), 

272, 278, 296 
Spitalfield weavers, 417 
Spithead, mutiny of, 382, 383 
Spurs, battle of, 179 
Stafford, 167 

, Edward, Duke of Buckingham, 183 

, Henry, Duke of Buckingham, 163- 

166 

, Sir H,, 154 

, Sir W., 155 

, Viscount, 273 

Stair, Earl of, 338 
Stamford, 27, 161 

Bridge, battle of, 36 

Stamp Act, 356, 357 

Stanhope, General, 303 ; Earl, 321, 323, 

324, 326, 327 
Stanley, Lord, 164, 166 
-, Mr., 423, 426; Lord, 434, 436 (Earl of 

Derby); Prime Minister, 439, 440, 446 

, Sir W., 175 

Star Chamber, 174, 175, 238, 239, 243 
States-General (French), 378 
Steinkirk, battle of, 295 
Stephen of Blois, reign of, 59-62; cha- 
racter of, 59 
Stephens, 447 
Stephenson, George, 421 
Stigand, Archbishop, 35, 42, 44 
Stirling, 104, 107, 341 
Stoke, battle of, 173 
Stoney Stratford, 164 
Strafford, Earl of (Wentworth), 235-23 ^ 

240-242 
Stratford, John, Archbishop, 114, 115 

, Robert, 114 

Strathclyde, 14, 28 
Straw, jack, 128 
Strode, 245 
Stuart, Arabella, 225 

, General, 394 

• , Henry, Lord Darnley, 211 

Subsidy, 234, 236, 241 
Succession Act, 301 
Suffolk, 14 

, Charles Brandon, Duke of, 180 

, Dukes of (see Pole, de la) 

, Henry Grey, Duke of 203 

Sunderland, Earl of (1) (see Spencer) 

, Earl of (2) (see Spencer) 

Surajah Dowlah, 347 
Surrey, 154 

, Lord (1), 179 (see Howard) 

, Lord (2), 193 (see Howard) 

Sussex, county of, 154 

, kingdom of, 12, 14, 16, 17, 19, 20 

Sweyn, 30, 31 
Swift, Dean, 328, 329 
Switzerland, 390 
Swynford, Katharine, 131, 142 



Sydenham, Lord, 430 
Syria, 385 

Tacitus, 9 

Taillebourg, battle of, 89 

Talavera, battle of, 398 

Talents, ministry of the, 392 

Tallard, Marshal, 305, 306 

Tancred, 77 

Tangiers, 267 

Tara, Hill of, 438 

Tasmania, 408 

Tavistock, 242 

Teignmouth, 293 

Tel-el-Kebir, battle of, 450 

Telford, 374 

Templars, Knights, 110, 188 

Temple, Lord, 370 

, Sir W., 272 

Tenchebrai, battle of, 55 

Test Act, 270, 280, 333, 419 

, Universities', 448 

Teutons, 4 

Tewkesbury, battle of, 161 

Thegns, King's, 22, 56 

Theodore, Archbishop, 18 

Therouenne, 179 

Thirty Years' War begins, 231 

Thistlewood, 413 

Thor, 15 

Throgmorton, 213 

Thurkill, 31 

Tiers Etat, 378 

Tilsit, Treaty of, 396 

Tintern Abbey, 187 

Tippermuir, battle of, 252 

Tippoo Sahib, 389 

Tithe Commutation Act, 428 

Tobago, 354, 368 

Toleration Act, 290 

Tone, Wolf, 388 

Tonnage and Poundage, 227, 234, 236, 
243 

Tooke, Home, 381 

Torbay, 285 

Tories (Conservatives), 274, 300 ; num- 
bers of, 425, 427, 433, 447,448, 451, 452 

Torres Vedras, 399-401 

Torrington, Earl of (Herbert), 284, 293, 

Tostig, 33, 34-36 

Toulon, 382, 384 

Toulouse, 68 

, battle of, 403 

Touraine, 61, 75, 80 

Tournay, 307, 308 .^^ 

Towns, 9, 10, 27, 58, 76 ; represent in 
Parliament, 91 ; support the Yorkists, 
160 ; and the Parliament, 246 

Townshend, Charles, 358 

, Viscount, 320, 323, 327, 328, 333 

Towton, battle of, 159, 160 

Trade, 6, 7, 58, 84 ; with Flanders, 96, 
113, 173, 174 ; with the East, 229, 257, 
267, 296, 297; Indian, 346, 354; ex- 
pansion of, 374; depression of, 408, 409 



5i7 



Index. 



475 



Trading companies, 229 
Trafalgar, battle of, 392 
Traitorous Correspondence Act, 381 
Transvaal, 450 

Trastamare, Henry of, 122, 123 
Treason Act, 124 

trials, 199, 299 

Treasonable Practices Act, 381 

Treasurer, 56, 326, 327 

Trevelyan, Sir Gr., 452 

Treves, Archbishop of, 181 

Trial, method of, 71 (see Treason trials) 

Trichinopoly, 344 

Triennial Act, first, 242 ; second, 298, 323 

Trinidad, 382 

Triple Alliance, 269, 270 

Troyes, Treaty of, 148 

Tudor, Jasper, Earl of Pembroke, 158 

, Owen, 165 

Turanians, 5 

Turuey, 177, 416, 413, 4L9, 440, 441, 448, 
449 

Company, 239 

Tuscany, 444 
Tutbury, 212 
Tyler, Wat, 123 
Tyrconnel, 281, 293 

Ulster, 228, 293 

Ulverston, 173 

Uniformity, Act of, first, 196; second, 

208 ; third, 266 
Union of England, and Wales, 192; of 

England, Wales, and Scotland, 310 ; of 

Great Britain and Ireland, 388 
United States (see American Colonies), 

229, 362, 368, 393, 407, 444, 445 
United Irishman, 438 
Utopia, 184 

Utrecht, Treaty of, 313, 322 
Uxbridge, negotiations at, 251 

Valence, William of (1), 88 

, William of (2). 88, 90 

Valmy, battle of, 379 

Valois, Philip of, 112 

Valparaiso, 214 

Van Artaveld Jacques, 114, 118 

Vane, Sir Henry, 260, 265 

Van Tromp, 257 

Vasco de Gama, 177 

Vaudois, 261 

Venables, 260 

Vendome, Marshal, 307, 303 

Venice, 444 

Verneuil, battle of, 150 

Vernon, Admiral, 337 

Versailles, 368, 378 

Victor Emmanuel, 408, 444, 445, 448 

Victoria, 414; reign of, 429-452 

Vienna, 305, 306, 403 

Villars, Marshal, 307 

Villeins, 119, 120, 128, 377 

Villeneuve, Admiral, 391 



Villiers, George, Duke of Buckingham 

(1), 230, 232, 234-236 
, George, Duke of Buckingham (2), 

268-271 
Vimiero, battle of, 396, 397 
Vincent, 431 

Vinegar Hill, battle of, 388 
Virginia Company, 230 

founded, 214, 230, 231, 361 

Vittoria, battle of, 402 
Voltaire, 347 
Volunteers, 390, 443 
(Irish), 367 

Wade, General, 340, 341 

Wagram, battle of, 399 

WagstafF, 260 

Wakefield, battle of, 158 

Walcheren, Island of, 398 

^Vales, Prince of, title of, 100 ; crest of, 117 

, races of, 7 ; Christianity of, 16, 17 ; 

takes Edward the Elder as Lord, 27, 

34, 44, 49, 92 ; conquest of, 99, 100, 132, 

166 ; united to England, 192 
Wallace, W., 104 
Waller, Sir W., 248, 249, 251 
Wallingford, 37, 62 
Walls, Roman, 9, 10 
Walpole, Sir Robert, 309, 312, 320, 323, 

324, 326 ; Prime Minister, 327-329, 332- 

337 
Walsingham, Sir Francis, 212 
Walter, Hubert, Archbishop, 77-80 
Waltheof, 45 
Walworth, 128 

Wandewash, battle of, 350, 369 
Warbeck, Perkin, 173, 174 
Warenne, Earl, 102 
Warrington, battle of, 253 
Warwick, Guy, Earl of, 106, 107 
, Richard Neville, Earl of, 155-158, 

160, 161 
Wash, the, 8, 84 
Washington, 407 

, George, 347, 361, 362, 364 

Waterloo, battle of, 404, 405 

Watling Street, 9, 10, 25, 37, 156 

Watson, 225 

Watt, James, 374 

AVavre, battle of, 404 

Wellesley, Sir A., 389, 397, 398 ; Lord 

Wellington, 400-402 (see Duke of) 
, Marquess of (Mornington), 389, 399, 

401 
Wellington, Duke of, 403, 404, 418; 

Prime Minister, 419, 420, 422, 424, 427, 

434, 438 
Welsh, 11, 49, 81, 102; at Crecy, 116; 

132 
Wentworth, Sir T. (Strafford), 235-237, 

240-242 
Wesley, Charles, 335 

, John, 335 

Wessex, 12, 14, 16, 19, 20, 24, 25, 27, 30, 

31, 37 



476 



Index. 



Western counties, revolt of, 196, 197 

Westminster, courts fixed at, 83, 98 

Wexford, 256 

Weymouth, 161 

Wharton, Lord, 312 

V> higs (Liberals), 274 ; sections of, 355 ; 
numbers of, 425, 427, 433, 447, 448, 
451, 452 

Whitby, 18 

Whitefield, 335 

Whitehall, 254 

Whitelocke, General, 394 

Wigan, battle of, 253 

Wilberforce, 373, 393, 425 

Wilkes, J"., 355, 356, 358-360, 366 

Wills, 54 

William I., 34-37 ; reign of, 42-47 ; cha- 
racter of, 42, 47, 48 

n., reign of, 48-52 ; character of, 

48 

IIL, 271-275, 282, 284-287; reign 

of, 289-303 ; character of, 289, 303 

IV., 414; reign of, 420-428; cha- 
racter of, 421 

L, of Prussia, 407, 445, 448 

Clito, 57 

Fitz-Osbern, 42 

of Valence (1), 88 

^of Valence (2), 88, 90 

, son of Henry I., 57 

- the Lion, 74, 101 



Wilmington (Sir Spencer Compton), 332 ; 

Prime Minister, 337 
Wilton, battle of, 24 

, Lord Grey de, 225 

Winceby, battle of, 249 
Winchester, 53 
Winwidfleld, battle of, 17 
Witena-gemot, 21, 22, 35, 37, 56, 91 (see 

Magnum Concilium and Parliament) 
Woden, 15, 22 
Wolfe, General, 349, 350 
Wolseley, Colonel, 293 

■ , Lord, 450 

Wolsey, Cardinal, 180-185 
Wolverhampton, 423 
Worcester, 247 

, battle of, 257 

Wulfhere, 19 

York, 9, 18, 108, 190, 212, 241, 246; siege 

of, 249, 250 

, Edmund, Duke of, 127, 131, 138 

, Frederick. Duke of, 382. 386, 414, 

418, 420 

, J^ichard, Duke of (1), 145, 152-158 

, Pdchard, Duke of (2), 165, 173 

Yorkists, 169, 160 
Yorkshire Petition, 363 

Zurich, 386 
Zutphen, 215 









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